Index

Note: Page numbers followed by “f” and “t” indicate figures and tables respectively

A
Abnormal pressures, 87
Absolute time, 365
Absorption, 81
Acoustic formation image technology (AFIT), 267–269
Acoustic tools, 272
Acoustilog, 271
Adomian decomposition method (ADM), 536–537
Buckley–Leverett
analysis, 538
equation, 542–543
governing equations, 539–541
Adsorption, 81–82
Aggradational style, 89
Air injection projects, 194–195
Air pollutants, 25–26
Albacora, 210–211
Alberta government strategy, 155f
Algae, 381
Alkali-polymer (AP), 177–178
Alkaline surfactant-polymer (ASP), 177–178
Alluvial plain environment, 83
Alpha rays (α rays), 340–341
Amplitude versus offset (AVO), 244
Analytical model, 524
Anisotropic parameters, 246–249
Anthocyanin, 412
Arctic sea ice paradox, 124–125
Artificial flames, colors and sources, 426t–430t
Astronomical unit (AU), 374
Atomic model, 339
Azimuthal AVO variations, 245
B
Bakken formation, 465–469, 467t–468t
Barnett shale, 465
Barrels of oil per day (BOPD), 200
Basin-centered gas system, 91–92
Betalain, 412
Biomass, 76
Bitumen, 163
Bituminous sands, 33–34
Bob Slaughter Block Lease (BSBL), 205–206
Borate salts, 17
Borehole imaging
log, 271
tools, 271
Borehole Televiewer (BHTV), 272
“Bottom-up” analysis, 1–2
“Bridge” fuel, 24
BrightWater®, 177
Brinkman equation, 255
British thermal unit (Btu), 21–22, 338
Buckley–Leverett equation, 305–306, 539, 542–543
Bulk gas magnetic resonance permeability, 288
Bunsen burner, 12–13
Buracica, 186
Burial-thermal diagenesis, 225–226
Butt cleats, 85–86
Byron field, 200–204
C
Calvin–Benson photosynthetic cycle, 378–379
Canadian Security Administrators (CSA), 30
Canadian shale plays, 98–99, 104t
Canadian shale reservoirs, 104t
Capillary number, 301
expression, 312–313
and residual oil saturation, 302f
Carbohydrates, 439
Carbon, 341–342
C-4 acid, 379
contrasting and unifying features, 400t–402t
in diamond, 388
fixation, 438
fundamental characteristics, 399t
layers, 381
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 438
backbone, 158
economic feasibility study, 157–158
injection, 152–158
projects, 150–152
sequestration, 216
and water, 438
Carbon sequestration enhanced gas recovery (CSEGR), 215–220
Carbonate
formations, 186–209
reservoirs, 185
Carboniferous period, 381
Carmopolis, 186
Carotene, 411
Chain rule, 541
Chemical EOR methods, 152
Chemical flooding, 209
Chemical manufacturing industry, 551
Chemical methods, 176–178
Chemical reactions, 374
Circumferential Acoustic Scanning Tool-Visualization (CAST-V), 272
Circumferential Borehole Imaging Log (CBIL), 267–269, 272, 275–283
Citric acid, 18
Cleats, 81
Coal zones, 57–58
Coalbed methane (CBM), 15, 71, 80–86, 241, 493
gas reserve, 60
special considerations for, 333–335
Colloidal dispersion gel (CDG), 177
Combustion, 403–404
Comprehensive modeling, 526, 533–536
Forchheimer’s model, 528–530
governing equations, 526–527
governing PDEs, 526
Condensation, 82
Control volume approach, See Engineering approach
Controlled atmospheric pressure resin infusion (CAPRI), 174
Conventional economic analysis, 550–552
Conventional gas resources, 74
Conventionally recoverable resources, 73
Core analysis, 267–300
Cotton Creek Field, 207–209
Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), 378–379
Critical micelle concentration (CMC), 207
Cyclic steam injection, 167–168
D
Darcy velocity, 302–303
Darcy’s law, 511–512
Darcy’s model, 527
Decline curve analysis, 494–502
Deeper marine shale, 465–469
Deltaic marine reservoirs, 458–465
Densilog, 271
Density magnetic resonance (DMR), 285
Department of Energy (DoE), 132
Depositional model, 88
Discretization, 489–490
Drill stem test (DST), 238–239
Drilling, 250–267
overbalanced, 257–258
underbalanced, 258–267
Dual porosity model, 256
Dynamic reservoir characterization tool, 525–526
E
Eastern Gas Shales Project, 16
Ecological fallacies, 507
Economically recoverable resources, 73
Electrical Micro Imager (EMI), 271–272
Electrical MicroScanner (EMS), 271–272
Eliasville Caddo Unit (ECU), 200
Ellenburger Group, 469–473, 470t–472t
Embar-Tensleep oil, 200–204
Emission sources, 25–26
Energy, 369–381
characterization, 349–350
Aristotle’s four-element phase diagram, 350f
duality, 353–354
equally important, 355
heart beats, 360
linearization, 351
“natural” objects frequency, 361t
role of fire, 356
subatomic particles, 358–360
tangible/intangible duality, 363f
Yin–Yang concept, 352–353, 352f
confining pressure, 381
galaxy model, 373–374
“Greenhouse Effect One-Layer Model”, 376–377
heat energy, 371
natural light, 372–373
neutrinos, 371
photosynthetic mechanism, 378–380
redefining, 369
Energy Information Administration (EIA), 153
Energy Information Association (EIA), 42, 132
Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB), 33
Energy-related chemicals, 551
Energy-to-mass conversion, 379
Engineering approach, 490, 511
Enhanced gas recovery (EGR), 129, 220–231
carbon sequestration, 215–220
challenges and opportunities, 221–231
CO2-EGR, 156
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), 5, 29, 130–215, 302
carbon dioxide injection, 152–158
carbonate formations, 186–209
chemical methods, 176–178
gas injection, 178–184
lithology, 184–209
MEOR, 215
need for, 136–148
offshore EOR, 209–215
sandstone formations, 186
state of art, 149–152
thermal methods, 160–176
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 25–26
Eolian
environments, 449
reservoirs, 450–458
Ethylene glycol, 17
Experimental method, 490–491
F
Face cleats, 85–86
Fan facies, 90
Fatti’s equation, 332–333
Filtering permeability data, 326–330
Fingering, 306–307
Finite difference methods, 508–512
Fluid-flow pathways, 449
Fluvial reservoir, 479
FMI logs, See Resistivity image logs
Foam, 179
Force, 369–381
Forchheimer’s model, 528–530
Formation MicroImager (FMI), 271–272
Formation MicroScanner (FMS), 271–272
Formulation step, 489–490
Fossil fuel energy, 381
Fracking, 15–16, 134–136
Fracture, 514–515, 520f
flow, 256
geometries, 256–257
models, 244
Fracture-induced anisotropy, 244
Frio formation, 458, 459t–461t
Future potentials of unconventional gas, 129
G
Galaxy model, 373–374
Gamma Ray Spectralog (GR Spectralog), 270–271
Gas
injection, 178–184
production, 497
reservoir development, 494, 556
war, 34
Gas hydrate, 64–67
deposits of Alaska, 67f
methane, 107–116
Gas Technology Institute (GTI), 61–62
Geophysical logs, 270–291
Global warming, 116–126
Glutaraldehyde, 18
Governing equations, 526–527, 539–541
GR Spectralog, See Gamma Ray Spectralog
Gradient model, 522–523
“Greenhouse Effect One-Layer Model”, 376–377
Greenhouse emission, 132
Guar gum, 18
Gulf of Mexico-Hydrate Research Consortium (GOM-HRC), 114
H
Half-thickness, 340–341
Hart gas, 13
Hatch–Slack photosynthetic cycle, 379
Heat source, 374
Henry’s Law, 81
High pressure air injection (HPAI), 150–152
Horizontal well, 129
Human (Homo sapiens), 371
Human thought material (HTM), 342
Hydraulic diffusivity, 277–278
Hydraulic fracturing, 18–19, 519
Hydrocarbon gas injection projects, 179–180
Hydrocarbon pore volume (HCPV), 495
Hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (HPAM), 200
I
Ideal fractures, 519
Image log, 267–300
In situ combustion (ISC), 130
Intangibles economics, 553–554
Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP), 115
Intention, 367
Interconnected fluvial marine reservoirs, 458–465
International Energy Agency (IEA), 550
International Energy Outlook 2013 (IEO2013), 21–22
Ion, 339
Irregular fractures, See Nonideal fractures
Isopropanol, 18
Isotope, 339–340
K
Karazhanbas, 186
Kerogen, 442
Kerosene, 10–11
L
Linearization, 489–490
Lipids, 439
Liquid Addition to Steam for Enhancing Recovery process (LASER process), 168–169
Lithology, 184–209
Logging while drilling (LWD), 271–272
Low permeability, 87
matrix, 262
reservoirs, 294
Luminous flame, 423
M
Macroscopic sweep efficiency, 305–306
Managed pressure drilling (MPD), 250–252
Marcellus Shale–Appalachia, 105
Marine carbonate reservoirs, 469–473
Material balance equation, 491–493
Mathematical method, 490–491
Matrix, 81
“Matrix transient linear” dominated flow, 523
Measured depth (MD), 252–253
Measurement while drilling (MWD), 271–272
Mechanical frequencies, 368–369
Methane
drainage, 496
hydrate, 109, 114
recovery, 496
Micellar polymer flooding, 204–205
Microbial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR), 215
Microresistivity imaging tools, 273
Minnelusa formation, 456–458, 457t
Mobility ratio, 300–301
Modified Brinkman’s model (MBM), 526, 530–533
Morrow formation, 458–465, 462t–464t
Multiarm Caliper, 271
Multilaterals, 15–16
“Mysterious gum” bed, 9–10
N
Natural energy
artificial energy vs., 405–410
to natural mass, 410–438
source, 381–384
Natural fractures, 519
Natural gas, 12–13, 116–126, 382–384
Natural membrane separation, 82
Navier–Stokes equations, 533, 534f
Neoclassical economics, 77–78
Neutrinos, 371
Non-Darcian behavior, 530
Non-OPEC production, 118
Nonideal fractures, 519
Nonlinear equations, 536–547
Normal Moveout (NMO), 245–246
Norphlet formation, 450–456, 455t
North American shale gas basins, 101f
Norwegian Institute of Technology, 230–231
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate (NPD), 30
Nucleic acids, 439
Numerical modeling approaches, 2
O
Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), 115
Offshore EOR, 209–215
Oil and Gas Reserves Committee (OGRC), 29–30
Oil and gas reservoirs, forces of, 300–317
“Oil window”, 442
Oil-Based MicroImager (OBMI), 271–272
Onondaga reef fields, 14
Organic frequencies, 368–369
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 21–22
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 28
Original oil in place (OOIP), 174–175
Overbalanced drilling, 257–258
Overburden pressure, 294
Oxidation, 403–404
Oxygen, 81
contrasting features, 397t–402t
cycle in nature, 437f
fundamental properties, 396t
supply, 404
unifying features, 400t–402t
Oxygenic photosynthesis, 437–438
P
P-Wave Azimuthal AVO Response, 245–246
P-wave seismic data, 244–245
Pa-kua symbols, 354
Paradox of value, See Water–diamond paradox
Partial differential equation (PDE), 489–490
Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide (PHPA), 200–204
Particle, 370
PD reserves, See “Proven developed” reserves
Peat material, 381–382
“Permeability jail”, 293–294
Petroleum, 384–387, 389f
in big picture, 9–26
crude oil characteristics, 451f
industry, 487
opposite to water, 390
organic origin, 439–446
production, 453f–454f
reserve, 26–34
scientific characterization
water vs., 390
artificial light spectrum, 416f
artificial sources, 411t
burning vehicles, 422f
carbon characteristics, 399t
combustion, 403–404
depicture of flame, 422f
elements in Earth crust and lithosphere, 432t–433t
elements in human body, 435t–436t
features, 394t–395t
fire from wood, 431f
hydrogen cycle, 439f
natural energy to natural mass, 410–438
natural energy vs. artificial energy, 405–410
natural light pathway, 406f
oxidation, 403–404
oxygen cycle, 437f
oxygen vs. carbon, 400t–402t
oxygen vs. hydrogen, 396t–399t
photosynthesis, 437–438
signal complimentary nature, 391
water cycle, 440f
Petroleum Reserves Office (PRO), 30
Petrophysical data analysis, 283–291
Phaeophytin, 411
Phosphenolpyruvate carboxylase, 379
Photosynthesis, 378–380, 410–412, 437–438
PL, See Pure light
Polyacrylamide, 17
Polymer flooding, 177, 197–200
Pore space volume, 535
Porous medium, 513–514
Porous system, 528f
Possible reserves, 28
Potassium carbonates, 17
Prejudice-based decision-making, 488
Primary fractures, See Hydraulic fractures
Primary recovery techniques, 15–16, 130
Probable reserves, 28
Progradational style, 89–90
Proteins, 439
“Proven developed” reserves (PD reserves), 26–27
Proven reserves, 26, 74
“Proven undeveloped” reserves (PUD reserves), 26–27
Pseudo-capillary pressure, 309
PUD reserves, See “Proven undeveloped” reserves
Pure light (PL), 364–365
R
Radial fractures, 519
Radioactivity, 339–340
Rate of penetration (ROP), 239
Recoverable resources, 73
Recovery factor, 138–139
Regular fractures, See Ideal fractures
Regulatory agencies, 30
Renewable energy sources, 23
Representative elemental volume (REV), 269, 505–506
Reservoir characterization, 557
during drilling, 250–267
image log and core analysis, 267–300
knowledge model, 238f
origin of fractures, 240–242
reservoir heterogeneity, 317–331
seismic fracture characterization, 242–249
of unconventional gas formations, 237
Reservoir heterogeneity, 317–331
estimates of fracture properties, 330–331
filtering permeability data, 326–330
total volume estimate, 330
Reservoir simulation, 487, 557
assumptions, 490–491
decline curve analysis, 494–502
finite difference methods, 508–512
material balance equation, 491–493
statistical method, 502–508
engineering approach, 490
essence, 489–490
knowledge model, 488f
logical steps, 487–488
recent advances in, 512
accuracy, 512–513
coupled fluid flow, 515–517
fluid flow modeling, 517
geomechanical stress model, 515–517
modeling unconventional gas reservoirs, 518–526
new fluid flow equations, 513–515
speed, 512–513
towards solving nonlinear equations, 536–547
Resistivity At Bit (RAB), 271–272
Resistivity
image logs, 273
imaging tools, 271–272
Resource
play, 75
triangle, 75–80
“Rough diamond”, 57
S
Sandstone formations, 186
Secondary fractures, 519
Sedimentary, 381
Seismic fracture characterization, 242–249
anisotropic parameters, 246–249
NMO velocities, 245–246
P-Wave Azimuthal AVO Response, 245–246
P-Wave NMO velocities, 246–249
Shale gas, 240–241
See also Tight gas
reserve, 58–60
reservoirs, 94–107
special considerations for, 331–333
Shallow biogenic gas reservoirs, 80
Shallow marine reservoirs, 458–465
Silicon, 440
Simpson’s paradox, 506
Simulation, 489–490
Simultaneous Acoustic and Resistivity tool (STAR), 271–272
Slickwater fracturing, 16
Smackover formation, 473, 474t–477t
Society of Petroleum Engineers (SPE), 29–30
Sodium carbonates, 17
Sodium chloride, 17
SP flooding, See Micellar polymer flooding
Special core analysis (SCAL), 283
Spraberry formation, 473–479, 478t
Square root plots, 497
Stable isotope, 339–340
STARtrak, 271–272
State regulators, 25–26
Statistical method, 502–508
Steam injection process, 160
Steam-Assisted Gravity Drainage (SAGD), 167–168
Steamflooding, 149–150, 167–168
microscopic behavior of surfactant, 164–165
surfactant selection criteria for, 164
Subatomic particles, 358–360
Submarine fan reservoir, 473–479
Supply-and-demand theory, 77
Surfactant injection, 207
Surfactant-polymer (SP), 177–178
Sweet gas, 82
Sweet spot, 102
Syncrude, 163
T
Tar sands, See Bituminous sands
“Technically recoverable” gas, 61–62
Tertiary recovery, 130
“Theory of marginal utility”, 77–78
Thermal cracking equivalent, 231–233
Thermal methods, 160–176
Tight gas, 86–94
See also Shale gas
basins, 61–62
decline curve, 497f
directional drilling effectiveness, 259–260
“existence of permeability jail” in, 227f
formations, 15
parameters of, 283
reserve, 60–64
resource triangle for, 63f
scoping assessment, 94
in United States, 387f
Tight play, 87–88
Toe-to-heel air injection (THAI), 173
Total endowment, 74
Total organic content (TOC), 240–241, 492
Total reserves, 74
Transient behavior, 494
Trigrams, 354
U
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), 27
UK Statement of Recommended Practices (SORP), 30
Ultrasonic Borehole Imager (UBI), 272
Unconventional economics, 550–554
Unconventional gas, 49–67, 74–80, 446–447
CBM gas reserve, 60
designation, 556
economics and geological assurance, 72f
features, 80, 126–127
CBM, 80–86
gas hydrate methane, 107–116
shale gas reservoirs, 94–107
tight gas, 86–94
gas hydrate, 64–67
global warming, 116–126
natural gas, 116–126
paradigm shift in, 79f
reserve, 556
growth potential, 447–449
shale gas reserve, 58–60
tight gas reserve, 60–64
well production variability, 479–485
Unconventional gas reservoirs, 1, 337, 487
See also Comprehensive modeling
atomic model, 339
carbon, 341–342
categories in US, 449
deeper marine shale, 465–469
deltaic marine reservoirs, 458–465
Eolian reservoirs, 450–458
fluvial reservoir, 479
interconnected fluvial marine reservoirs, 458–465
marine carbonate reservoirs, 469–473
shallow marine reservoirs, 458–465
submarine fan reservoir, 473–479
characterization
of everything in existence, 365–367
of matter and energy, 337–342
dogmatic assertion, 338–339
Earth crust elements, 383t
end game, 8
energy, 369–381
features of natural processes, 343t
force, 369–381
future, 7–8
greening, 5–6
to mainstream, 2–4
mechanical frequencies, 368–369
natural energy source, 381–384
nature vs. natural science, 342–349
organic frequencies, 368–369
paradigm shift in, 6
paradox, 4–5
radium, 340
science of, 6–7
violated natural features, 345t–347t
Underbalanced drilling (UBD), 250–252, 258–267
Undiscovered resources, 73
United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC), 30
United States Geological Survey (USGS), 30
Unproven reserves, 27–28, 74
“Unstable isotope”, 339–340
V
Vacuum field, 204–209
VAPEX, 167–168
Variation coefficient (VC), 479–482
Volatile organic compound (VOC), 25–26
Volcanic rocks, 223–224
W
Warren–Root model, 521
Wasatch formation, 479, 480t–481t
Water, 384–387
petroleum vs., 390
artificial light spectrum, 416f
artificial sources, 411t
burning vehicles, 422f
carbon characteristics, 399t
combustion, 403–404
depicture of a flame, 422f
elements in Earth crust and lithosphere, 432t–433t
elements in human body, 435t–436t
features of, 394t–395t
fire from wood, 431f
hydrogen cycle, 439f
natural energy to natural mass, 410–438
natural energy vs. artificial energy, 405–410
natural light pathway, 406f
oxidation, 403–404
oxygen cycle, 437f
oxygen vs. carbon, 400t–402t
oxygen vs. hydrogen, 396t–399t
photosynthesis, 437–438
signal complimentary nature, 391
snow flakes, 392f
water cycle, 440f
saturation, 493
scientific characterization, 389f
sources, 393t
Water alternating gas (WAG), 179–180, 311
Water–diamond paradox, 384–387
Waterflooding, 210
Worldwide gas reserve, 34–49
X
Xanthophyll, 412
Y
Yates Field, 187–188
Yin–Yang concept, 352–354, 352f
evolution, 357f
natural occurrence, 357f
tangible vs. intangible nature, 358t
Yule–Simpson effect, 506
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