Endnotes

Foreword

1 Stan Davis and Christopher Meyer, BLUR, Addison Wesley 1998.

2 This story of Linux has been told many times, so is not repeated here.

3 BLUR, whose subtitle was “The Speed of Change in the Connected Economy,” focused on the reasons for this; by now they need no explanation.

Chapter 1

1 Henry William Chesbrough, Open Innovation: The New Imperative for Creating and Profiting from Technology (Boston: Harvard Business Press, 2005).

2 Tom Standage in presenting Business Innovation award to Alpheus Bingham at The Economist award dinner, November, 2006.

3 Jeff Howe, “The Rise of Crowdsourcing,” Wired, no. 14.06 (June 2006), http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.06/crowds.html.

4 Michael E. Raynor and Jill A. Panetta, “Better Way to R&D,” Harvard Business Publishing higher education newsletter, March 15, 2005, http://cb.hbsp.harvard.edu/cb/web/product_detail.seam;jsessionid=A210A06B006496915FA5D14784E3E29F?R=S0503E-PDF-ENG&conversationId=205604&E=73043.

Chapter 2

2 R. H. Coase, “The Nature of the Firm,” Economica 4, no. 16 (November 1937): 386–405, http://www.jstor.org/pss/2626876,doi:10.1111/j.1468-0335.1937.tb00002.x.

3 Eric von Hippel, Democratizing Innovation (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005).

4 Don Tapscott and Anthony D. Williams, Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything, Expanded Edition (Portfolio Trade, 2010).

5 James Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds (New York: Anchor Books, 2004).

6 Ibid.

7 Barry Libert, Social Nation: How to Harness the Power of Social Media to Attract Customers, Motivate Employees, and Grow Your Business (Wiley, 2010).

8 Ernest Hemingway, The Sun Also Rises (Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1926).

9 John Hagel III and John Seely Brown, The Only Sustainable Edge: Why Business Strategy Depends on Productive Friction and Dynamic Specialization (Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2005). Though the exact term “process orchestration” was not used, these concepts were drawn from a prior paper by Hagel, Durchslag and Brown: John Hagel III, Scott Durchslag, and John Seely Brown, “Orchestrating Loosely Coupled Business Processes: The Secret to Successful Collaboration,” October 2002, http://www.johnhagel.com/paper_orchestratingcollaboration.pdf.

10 Victor K. Fung, William K. Fung, and Jerry (Yoram) Wind, Competing in a Flat World: Building Enterprises for a Borderless World (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton School Publishing / Pearson Education, 2008), 3.

11 Ibid., 15 (figure 1-4 caption).

12 John Hagel III, Scott Durchslag, and John Seely Brown, “Orchestrating Loosely Coupled Business Processes: The Secret to Successful Collaboration,” October 2002, http://www.johnhagel.com/paper_orchestratingcollaboration.pdf.

1 Peter F. Drucker, Managing in the Next Society (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2002), 68.

Chapter 3

1 Stanley Davis and Christopher Meyer, Blur: The Speed of Change in the Connected Economy (Grand Central Publishing, 1999).

2 Carliss Y. Baldwin and Kim B. Clark, Design Rules: The Power of Modularity, vol. 1 (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000). And “Managing in an Age of Modularity,” Harvard Business Review 75, no. 5 (September–October 1997): 84–93.

3 Stanley Davis and Christopher Meyer, Blur: The Speed of Change in the Connected Economy (Grand Central Publishing, 1999).

4 Fung, Fung, and Wind, Competing in a Flat World, 3.

5 Thomas Friedman, The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-First Century, Updated and Expanded Edition (New York: Picador, 2007), 10.

6 Harlan Cleveland and Garry Jacobs, “The Future of Work,” World Academy of Art and Science News, September 1996, 2, http://www.worldacademy.org/files/September%201996.pdf.

7 Thomas W. Malone, The Future of Work: How the New Order of Business Will Shape Your Organization, Your Management Style, and Your Life (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2004), 4.

8 Increase in US Industrial R&D Expenditures Reported for 2003 Makes Up for Earlier Decline,” National Science Foundation Division of Science Resources Statistics, NSF 06-305, December 2005, http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf06305/.

9 U.S. Businesses Report 2008 Worldwide R&D Expense of $330 Billion: Findings from New NSF Survey,” National Science Foundation Division of Science Resources Statistics, NSF 10-322, May 2010, http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf10322/.

10 Nathan’s Battle Foundation, accessed December 7, 2010, http://www.nathansbattle.com/scientific/nclra.html.

11 Roger Longman, “Lilly’s Chorus Experiment,” IN VIVO 25, no. 2 (February 2007): 35–39.

12 Jeff Davis, NASA, in personal communications and discussion with John Dila and Alpheus Bingham, and Bruce Cragin in personal communication with John Dila, November and December, 2010.

13 Aneesh Chopra, “Rethinking Government” (remarks to the Personal Democracy Forum 2010, Graduate Center, City University of New York, June 4, 2010), http://pdfnyc.civicolive.com/2010/06/04/rethinking-government-with-aneesh-chopra/, and YouTube video, posted June 12, 2010, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NbHrLVEUDZE.

Chapter 4

2 Karim R. Lakhani, Lars Bo Jeppesen, Peter A. Lohse, and Jill A. Panetta, “The Value of Openness in Scientific Problem Solving,” Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 07-050, 2007.

3 Karim R. Lakhani, Lars Bo Jeppesen, Peter A. Lohse, and Jill A. Panetta, “The Value of Openness in Scientific Problem Solving,” Harvard Business School Working Paper, no. 07-050 (2007), 3.

4 Julian Birkinshaw and Stuart Crainer, “Combine Harvesting,” Labnotes, no. 12 (June 2009): 15–18, http://www.managementlab.org/files/site/publications/labnotes/mlab-labnotes-012.pdf.

5 Karim R. Lakhani, Lars Bo Jeppesen, Peter A. Lohse, and Jill A. Panetta, “The Value of Openness in Scientific Problem Solving,” Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 07-050, 2007.

6 James Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds (New York: Anchor Books, 2004).

7 Karim Lakhani, in personal communication and discussion with Alpheus Bingham, October 2009.

8 Lars Bo Jeppesen and Karim R. Lakhani, “Marginality and Problem-Solving Effectiveness in Broadcast Search,” Organization Science 21, no. 5 (September-October 2010): 1016–1033, doi:10.1287/orsc.1090.0491.

9 Neil McLaughlin, “Optimal Marginality: Innovation and Orthodoxy in Fromm’s Revision of Psychoanalysis,” Sociological Quarterly 42, no. 2 (2001): 271-288.

10 Paul R. Carlile, “A Pragmatic View of Knowledge and Boundaries: Boundary Objects in New Product Development,” Organization Science 13, no. 4 (July-August 2002): 442–455.

11 Chris Anderson, “The Long Tail,” Wired, no. 12.10 (October 2004), http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.10/tail.html.

12 Scott Pegau and John Davis, in personal communications and discussion with Alpheus Bingham, November 2010.

1 Josh Petersen, January 10, 2005, comment on Chris Anderson, “Definitions: Final Round!,” The Long Tail (blog), Wired, January 9, 2005, http://longtail.typepad.com/the_long_tail/2005/01/definitions_fin.htm.

Chapter 5

* See text for definitions and details. Solid black circles indicate recommendation; partial black circles indicate a circumstantial recommendation; and blanks are not recommended channels.

1 “Ansari X Prize,” X Prize Foundation, http://space.xprize.org/ansari-x-prize.

2 Desk is the company name of a brokering service offering access to global workers mediated through the Internet. The URL for this business’ website is www.odesk.com.

3 Gary P. Pisano and Roberto Verganti, “Which Kind of Collaboration Is Right for You?” Harvard Business Review 86, no. 12 (December 2008): 79–86.

4 Eric Bonabeau, “Decisions 2.0: The Power of Collective Intelligence,” MIT Sloan Management Review, 50, no. 2 (Winter 2009): 45–52, http://sloanreview.mit.edu/themagazine/articles/2009/winter/50211/decisions-20-the-power-of-collective-intelligence/.

5 Carliss Y. Baldwin and Eric A. Von Hippel, “Modeling a Paradigm Shift: From Producer Innovation to User and Open Collaborative Innovation,” Harvard Business School Finance Working Paper 10-038, MIT Sloan Research Paper 4764-09 (August 2010, revised October 5, 2010), http://ssrn.com/abstract=1502864.

6 John C. Lechleiter (keynote, Brookings Institution Conference on Regional Innovation Clusters: Advancing the Next Economy, Washington, DC, September 23, 2010), http://www.lilly.com/news/speeches/100923/default.html.

7 Roger Longman, “Lilly’s Chorus Experiment,” IN VIVO 25, no. 2 (February 2007): 35–39.

Chapter 6

1 Geoffrey C. Bowker, and Susan Leigh Star (1999). Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999).

2 Christopher A. Bartlett and Sumantra Ghoshal, Managing Across Borders: The Transnational Solution (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1998).

Chapter 7

1 IBM, Global CEO Study: The Enterprise of the Future, 2008, http://www.ibm.com/ibm/ideasfromibm/us/ceo/20080505/.

2 As Ronald Coase has pointed out in his work on the nature of the firm and the minimization of transaction costs, which earned him the 1991 Nobel Prize in economics.

3 Drug Discovery World, “e-R&D – the net@work,” Alpheus Bingham and Neil Bodick, Spring 2001.

4 Wikipedia, s.v. “culture,” accessed October 25, 2010, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture.

5 Daniel H. Pink, Free Agent Nation: The Future of Working for Yourself (New York: Warner Books, 2001).

6 Economist Intelligence Unit, “Global Firms in 2020: The Next Decade of Change for Organisations and Workers,” Economist, posted September 16, 2010, http://businessresearch.eiu.com/global-firms-2020.html.

7 Elizabeth Montalbano, “NASA to Crowdsource Software Development,” InformationWeek, October 14, 2010, http://www.informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=227800070.

8 Scott Leibs, “Gaming the System,” CFO 24, no. 1 (January 2008), http://www.cfo.com/article.cfm/10345535?f=singlepage.

9 Dave Aron, “Dynamic Collaboration: A Personal Reflection,” Journal of Information Technology 24, no. 3 (September 2009): 214–218, doi:10.1057/jit.2009.4.

10 “Why We All Want to Grow Towards the Sun,” People Management 14, no. 11 (May 29, 2008): 42, http://www.peoplemanagement.co.uk/pm/articles/2008/05/why-we-all-want-to-grow-towards-the-sun.htm?EmailSent=true.

11 Graham Warwick, “Can Crowd-Sourcing Spur Aerospace Ideas?,” Aviation Week, November 8, 2010.

12 Leibs, “Gaming the System.”

13 “Wired Magazine’s Jeff Howe Talks About Crowdsourcing & TopCoder,” TopCoder (blog), posted February 24, 2009.

14 Heather Havenstein, “Eli Lilly Aims to Tap ‘Rock Star’ Programmers,” Computerworld, May 14, 2008.

15 “Wired Magazine’s Jeff Howe Talks About Crowdsourcing & TopCoder.”

16 Julian Birkinshaw and Stuart Crainer, “TopCoder: Open for Competition,” Labnotes, no. 8 (May 2008).

17 Mary Brandel, “Should Your Company ‘Crowdsource’ Its Next Project?” Computerworld, December 6, 2007.

18 Leibs, “Gaming the System.”

19 Ibid.

Chapter 8

1 James C. Collins and Jerry I. Porras, “Building Your Company’s Vision,” Harvard Business Review, September-October 1996.

2 Joshua D. Margolis and Mark Wetzel, “Avi Kremer,” Harvard Business School Case, 2010, p.5.

3 Ibid.

Chapter 9

1 President Barack Obama, Transparency and Open Government, January 21, 2009 http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Transparency_and_Open_Government/.

2 Ibid.

3 Aneesh Chopra, “Rethinking Government.”

4 Rachel Weiner and Arthur Delaney, “Open Government Directive: Obama Moves On Transparency Promise,” Huffington Post, December 8, 2009, updated March 18, 2010.

5 Ibid.

6 Aliya Sternstein, “One Year In, Resistance to Open Government Memo Lingers,” Nextgov, January 21, 2010.

7 “Barriers to Changing Government Culture,” Opengovwest, last edited March 27, 2010, http://ogw.wikispaces.com/Government+Culture.

8 Peter Orszag, “Promoting Transparency in Government,” Office of Management and Budget (blog), Office of Management and Budget, December 8, 2009.

9 Aneesh Chopra, “Empowering All Americans Through Open Government,” Huffington Post, June 5, 2010.

10 Ibid.

11 Challenge.gov, “Select Prizes and Challenges Launched September 7, 2010 and Featured on Challenge.gov.”

12 The White House, Open Government: A Progress Report to the American People, 11, December 9, 2009.

13 Ibid, 6.

14 Ibid, 11.

15 Ibid, 4, 5.