Index

 

 

1/3 octave filter, 73

5.1 format and surround: sound:

Jelly Fish ™ display, 145–6

loudspeaker arrangement, 141–2

upmixing systems, 150

50/15m weighting, 67

50/75m weighting, 67

Acoustica (journal), 76

Acoustics:

measures of musical instruments, 28–31

room,225–41

signals, 33

sound, 9–10

summation of audio signals, 167–8

A-D see analog to digital

Adaptive filter 72

Advanced Television Systems Committee see ATSC

AES:

AES3 digital interface, 170–5, 175–7

standard for pre-emphasis, 66

AES10 digital interface (MADI), 190

AES42 digital interface for microphones, 178

digital connection, 189

meter is slave device, 189

Time Delay Spectrometry, 205

Amplitude ratio (dB), 40–1

Analog tape:

audio standards, 152–4

video standards

broadcast program

standards, 154–5

noise reduction standards, 155–6

Analog to digital (A-D)

converter, 13, 14–15

Antaliasing, 12

ATSC (Advanced Television Systems Committee), US, 118, 161

Attenuation definition, 161

Audibility of peaks and troughs (ear), 54–5

“Audio” definition, 1

Audio Engineering Society see AES Audio signals:

acoustic, 33

average values, 35

crest factor, 37–8

electrical, 33

form factor, 38

peak values, 33–4

Rms values, 35–7

summation, 167–8

Auditoria design, 238

Auditory canal, 47

Average values for audio signals, 35

Band-pass (bell) filter, 72

Band-stop filter, 72

Bandwidth (frequency weighting and filters), 70–1

Barometric pressure, 4

Basilar membrane, 48

Bassoon, 28

Bel unit, 39

Binary values, 13–14

Bit reduction, 15–16

BLITS (Black & Lane Identification Tones for Surround) standards, 158

Broadcast program standards:

analog tape, 155–6

RBU R, 68, 160–1

Broadcast transmission standards, 160

Brown noise, 22

Burst tones, 213

CCIR 468 frequency weighting, 79

CCIR/ARM frequency weighting, 64–5

Click generators, 214

Cochlea (inner ear), 48–9

Codecs (algorithms), 17–18

Comb filter, 166–7

Complex tones, 19–21

Connection of meters: analog, 181

balanced out/balanced in, 187–8

balanced out/unbalanced in, 186–7

digital

clock distribution,189–90

inputs, 189

meter is slave device, 189

sample rate converter, 189

impedance matching, 182–3

instrument as measuring device, 188

jackfield (patchbay), 188

live sound, 188

loudspeaker/headphone monitoring, 19

mixing desk, 182–3

networking, 190

outputs with emphasis, 183–4

unbalanced out/balanced in, 185–6

unbalanced out/unbalanced in, 184–5

voltage matching, 181–2

Constant Q/constant

bandwidth filter, 72

Cooley, James W., 199

Corner frequency/turnover frequency, 72

Cremer, Lothar, 55

Crest factor:

audio signals, 37–8

voice as sound source, 26

Cross-over frequency, frequency weighting and filters, 71

Cutoff frequency (frequency weighting and filters), 70

D-A see digital to analog D/R ratio and room acoustics, 238–9

DAWs see digital audio workstations

dB (deciBel):

addition, 44

amplitude ratio, 40–1

conversion table, 41–2

dB (deciBel) (Continued)

introduction, 39–40

nomogram addition, 44–5 subtraction, 46

power or amplitude ratio, 41

power ratio, 40

reference values, 40–3

relative units, 43

subtraction, 45–6

weighted measurements, 43

Digital to analog (D-A) converter, 15, 191

Digital audio workstations (DAWs), 96, 190

Digital cinema and surround sound, 144

Digital interface:

AES3

channel status, 171–2

description, 170–1

frames and blocks, 171

general format, 175–6

preamble and V, C, U and P, 171

status byte

0, 172

1, 173

2, 174

3, 174

4, 175

AES42 (microphones), 170

bi-phase modulation, 176

IEC 60958-3 (2006)

channel status, 177

status byte

0, 177

1, 177–178

2, 178

physical connection, 70

protocol, 169

serial digital video interface, 178

Digital representation:

antaliasing, 12

binary values, 13–14

bit reduction, 15–16

codecs, 17–18

introduction, 1

lossless packing, 16

nonlinear quantization, 16

oversampling, 13

perceptual coding, 17

quantization, 13

sampling, 12–13

space, 18

Digital tape:

audio standards

CD master, 157

EBU, 157

post production, 157

video standards, 158

Digital TV see DTV

Dolby:

Laboratories, 64–5

L_eq (M) movie loudness/ annoyance for loudness, 79–80

Dolby meters:

737 Soundtrack Loudness, 97

LM 100 Broadcast Loudness, 97

Media, 2, 97– 8

Dolby® Stereo•SRlD/Dolby® Digital (sound format on 35 mm film), 142

Dolby® Stereo/Surround:

acoustic calibration, 140–1

decoding

details, 139

passive, 138

pro logic, 138–9, 141

description, 136–7

encoding, 137

loudspeaker position,139–41

mix & mic, 137–8

Dorrough loudness meter, 96

DTS (Digital Theatre

Systems), 143–4

DTS-ES (Extended

Surround), 143

DTV (digital TV), 118

Dynamic scales:

dialnorm, 118

DTV, 118

introduction,117–18

K system,118–20

Ear:

audibility of peaks and dips, 54–5

auditory nerve, 49

basilar membrane, 48–9

Cochlea, 48–9

eardrum, 47

Eustachian tube, 48

first wave front law, 55–6

forward and backward masking, 53–4

frequency

analyser, 50

weighting and filters, 62

hearing loss, 49–50

inner, 48–9

loudness function

frequency, 50

signal duration, 51–2

sound field, 50–1

masking, 53

middle, 48

organ of Corti, 49, 50

ossicles, 48

outer, 47–8

Pinna, 47

sensitivity, 49

tinnitus, 49

Eardrum, 47

EASE software, 238

EBU:

digital connection, 189

digital interfaces, 171

digital tape audio standards, 157

loudness meters calibration, 107

meter is slave device, 189

Mode, Meter

calibration,109–10

Integration scale, 104

Loudness Range, 104

measurement gate, 104

scales and ranges, 105

three times scale, 104

true peak, 104

R 68 and standards, 160, 161

R 128 Loudness Meter gating, 81–2

maximum true peak level, 103

Mode Meter, 103–5

program, 102–103

range, 103

standards, 161

scales relationship,114–15

standards for broadcast programs, 155–6

Echoes and room acoustics, 237

Electrical signals: description, 33

sound, 9–10

speed, 10

wavelength, 10

Emphasis (frequency weighting and filters):

analog signals, 66–7

tape recorders, 67–8

Emulated STI measurement systems, 211–12

“Equal loudness” curves, 75

Equivalent level (Leq):

737 Soundtrack Loudness Meter, 97

time weighting, 60

European Broadcasting Union see EBU Eustachian Tube (ear), 48

Exponential averaging (time weighting), 57–8

Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT):

analysis, 194–5

background, 199

data windowfunctions, 195–7

digital filters, 198–9

filters, 202

inverse, 198

overlap, 197–8

periodic signals, 193–4

size, 195

spectrograph, 207

FFT see Fast Fourier Transformation

Film:

digital standards, 160

Dolby Stereo SR D/Dolby Digital (sound format), 142

DVD/Blu-Ray standards conversion, 160

optical standards, 160

Filters:

audio, 70

Fast Fourier Transformation, 202

Q factor, 72

types, 72–3

Firstwave front law(ear), 55–6

Flutter echoes and room acoustics, 237

Form factor for audio signals, 38

Formants:

musical instruments, 28

vowels, 25–6

Forward and backward masking (ear), 53–4

Fourier, Jean-Baptiste- Joseph, 199

Frequency:

analysis (ear), 50

definition, 2

Frequency weighting and filters:

50/15m weighting, 67

50/75m weighting, 67

audio, 70

bandwidth, 70–1

CCIR/ARM, 64–5

cross-over frequency, 71

cutoff frequency, 70

definitions, 72

ear, 62

emphasis, 66

emphasis in tape recorders, 67–8

filter types, 72–3

IEC

A, 62

B, C and D, 62

Z, 63

ITU-R B5 468-1 (CCIR) weighting, 64

J.17 weighting, 68

K-weighting, 64

μs concept, 66–7

others, 65–6

RIAA, 68–70

RLB, 63

types of filters, 72–3

Gain definition, 72

Goniometer (audio vector

oscilloscope), 123–4, 145, 188

Graphic equalizer (band-pass filters), 73

“Hass effect”, 56

Hass, Helmut, 55

Hammer, anvil and stirrup bones (ear), 48

Hard disk systems/file based systems standards, 158–9

Harmonic distortion, 21

Hearing loss, 49

Heyser, Richard, 205–6

High-pass filter, 73

IEC:

60958-3 (2006) consumer applications, 176–8, 189

A frequency weighting and filters, 62, 75, 107

B, C and D, frequency weighting and filters, 62

I Nordic scale, 112

Peak Program Meter, 109

Z frequency weighting and filters, 63

Impulse (time weighting), 58–9

Inner ear, 48–9

International Telecommunications Union see ITU

Internet standards, 161

ISO:

532–1975 standard for loudness measurement, 76, 78

Zwicker's method for loudness, 77

ITU:

5.1 Format, 142

1770 standard for loudness, 161

broadcast

program standards, 161

tests, 110

transmission standards, 160

ITU-R BS.1770/1 (2006) and loudness metering, 96, 98–9, 102, 104

J.17 emphasis standard, 68

Loudness Meter, 99–101, 107

ITU-R:

B5 468-1 (CCIR) weighting, 64

BS.1770 for loudness in broadcast programs, 80–1

J.17 weighting (frequency), 68

Jelly Fish™ display and surround sound, 145–6

Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 76

K-weighting (frequency), 64

Laurisden, Holger, 123–4

L_eq see equivalent level

Level display:

cumulative distribution, 133

histogram, 130–1

overload, 131–3

recorder,129–30

Level, K-weighting full scale (LKFS), 81–2, 99

Level meters:

amplitude frequency response, 84

calibration

constant tone, 107

PPM (QPPM), 109

procedure, 108–9

SVI or VU, 109

tone burst, 107–8

definition, 83–4

delay time, 85

distortion by peak program, 85

division of scale, 84

dynamic response, 84

input impedance, 85

integration time, 85

loudness, EBU mode, 109–10

overload, 86

overswing, 85

reference input voltage, 84

return time overswing, 85

reversibility error, 85

supply voltage range, 86

LF see Low frequency

LFE see low frequency enforcement

Linear averaging (time weighting), 57

LKFS see level, K-weighting full scale

Logging systems (measurement), 212

Lossless packing (digital representation), 16

Loudness:

definition, 75

Dolby Leq (M) movie loudness/annoyance, 79–80

ear

frequency, 50

signal duration, 51–2

sound field, 50–1

EBU R 128 gating, 81–2

ISO 532–1975 standard, 76

ITU-R BS 1770 for broadcast programs, 80–1

level meters (EBU mode), 109–10

metering Dolby meters, 97–8

Dorrough loudness meter, 96

EBU Mode Meter, 103–5, 109–10

EBU R 128 Meter, 81–2, 102–3, 161

introduction, 95–6

LU meter, 52

ITU Loudness Meter, 99–101

ITU-R BS.1770/1 (2006)

standard, 96, 98–9, 102, 104

TC Electronic LM5/ LM5D Meter, 101–2

scales relationship, 113

Steven's method, 78–9

Zwicker's method, 75–7

Loudness range (LRA), 103, 104

Loudness Unit (LU), 26, 52, 82, 100, 102–3

Loudness Unit relative to Full Scale (LUFS), 82, 104

Low frequency enhancement (LFE), 141–2

Low frequency (LF), 182

Low-pass filter, 73

LRA see loudness range

LU see Loudness Unit

LUFS see Loudness Unit relative to Full Scale

MAF see minimum audible field Masking (ear), 53

Masters for vinyl standards, 159

Matrix encoded signals for surround sound, 144

Maximum length sequence see MLS

Maximum length sequence system analyser see MLSSA

Measurement signals: burst, 213

click generators, 214

noise, 213–14

pop/blast, 214

sinusoidal tones, 213

Measurement systems:

emulated STI, 211–12

logging systems, 212

MLSSA/MLS, 206–7

RApid Speech Transmission Index, 210, 211

spectrograph, 207

Speech Transmission Index, 209–10, 211

standards, 211–12

STI-PA, 210–11

TDS, 205–6

transient analysis, 207–9

Membrane absorbers and room acoustics, 234–5

MFT see Modulation Transfer Function

Microphones:

AES42 digital interface, 178

sound level meters, 215

Middle ear, 48

Minimum audible field (MAF), 51

MLS (maximum length sequence), 206–7

MLSSA/MLS measurement system, 206–7

“Modern” Meter (standard volume meter indicator), 90

Modulation Transfer Function (MFT), 209–10

Multichannel and surround sound:

5.1 format, 141–2, 145–6 calibration in ITU-775 arrangement, 148–9

bass management, 150

calibration of cinema systems, 147

digital sound, 148

optical sound, 147–8

Circle Surround, 141

digital cinema, 144

Dolby® Stereo SRlD/Dolby® Digital, 142

Dolby® Stereo/Surround, 136–41

DTS (Digital Theatre Systems), 141

DTS-ES (Extended Surround), 143

introduction, 136

Lexicon Logic7™, 141

matrix encoding, 136, 144

NHK 22.2 system, 150sch

phase differences, 147

SDDS (Sony Dynamic Digital Sound), 144

SMPTE, 150

Surround EX, 143

surround field synthesis, 150

Surround Sound Forum, 149

TMH10.2 system, 150

upmixing, 150

virtual surround, 144

μs concept (frequency weighting and filters), 66–7

Musical instruments:

acoustic measures, 28–31

formants, 28

tone, 26–8

NHK 22.2 system for surround sound, 150

Noise:

background, 237

broadband, 22

brown, 22

measurement signals, 213–14

pink, 22, 140–1, 160

reduction standards (analog tape), 156

white, 22

Noise criterion (NC) curve, 202, 219–23

Noise rating (NR) curve, 202, 219, 221–2

Nonlinear quantization, 16

Nordic scale (PPM), 92, 188

Notch filter, 73

Nyquist frequency, 12

Octave filter, 73

Odeon software, 238

Organ of Corti (ear), 49, 50

Ossicles (ear), 48

Outer ear, 47–8

Oval window in cochlea, 49

Oversampling, 13

Parametric equalizer (filter), 73

Peak filter, 73

Peak Program Meter (PPM):

BBC scale, 92

description, 91–2

DIN scale, 92

ear and loudness, 52

EBU R 128 loudness Meter, 102

extra functionality

additional gain, 94

integration time: fast, 93

peak hold, 94

peak indication, 94

level meters calibration, 109

measurement device, 188

Nordic scale, 92, 188

test level, 92 see also Quasi Peak Program Meter

Peak values:

audio signals, 33–5

time weighting, 59

Perceptual coding (digital representation), 17

Phase meter, integration time, 122–3

Pink noise, 22, 140–1, 160

Pinna (ear), 47

Pitch in speech, 24

Polarity, 121–2

Porous absorbers and room acoustics, 233–4

Power or amplitude ratio (dB), 41

Power ratio, (dB), 40

PPM see Peak Program Meter Preamble and V, C, U and P bits for digital interfaces, 171

Presence filter, 73

Program level meters and time weighting, 59–60

Prohs, John R., 205

Psychoacoustics, 47

Pure tones, 19

Q factor (filters) definition, 72

Quantization and digital representation, 13

Quasi Peak Program Meter (QPPM), 91

RASTI (RApid Speech Transmission Index), 210, 211

Relative units (dB), 43

Resonance absorbers and room acoustics, 234

Reverberation:

radius and critical distance, 239

time and room acoustics, 227–31, 231–3

RIAA (Recording Industry Association of America) weighting, 68–9

RIAA/IEC curve, 69–70

RLB (revised low-frequency B-weighting) curve:

filters, 63–4

ITU-R BS.1770, 80–1

ITU-R BS.1771 (2006),98

Rms (root mean square) values for audio signals:

crest factor, 26

description, 35–37

meters, 188

peak values, 34–35

time weighting, 57

transient analysis, 207

volts, 111

Room acoustic measures:

absorbers

membrane, 234–5

porous, 233–4

resonance, 234

background noise, 237

early reflections

large room, 238

small room, 237–8

echoes/flutter echoes, 237

good, 226

introduction, 225–6

large room parameters

auditoria design, 238 clarity (C80, C50, C7), 239

D/R ratio, 238–9

reverberation radius and critical distance, 239

strength (G), 240

reverberation time, 227–31, 231–3

Schroeder frequency, 226–7, 229

sound distribution, 235–6

Round window in cochlea, 49

SACD see Super Audio Compact Disc Sampling and digital representation, 12–13

Satellite standards, 160

Saw tooth wave, 21

Scales relationship:

dBu, 112, 188

DIN,112–113

EBU, 112,114–115

IEC

I Nordic scale, 112

IIa,112–113

IIb,112–113

introduction,111–112

loudness, 113

M/S, 113

SMPTE,114–115

SVI or VU,112–113

volts,111–112

Schroeder frequency and room acoustics, 211226–227, 229

SDDS (Sony Dynamic Digital Sound), 144

Sensitivity of ears, 49

Shelving filter, 73

Signals:

complex tones, 19–21

musical instruments, 26–28, 28–32

noise, 22

pure tones, 19

special waveforms, 21–22

voice as sound source, 23–26

Slope definition, 172

SMPTE standard,114–115, 150

Sony Philips Digital Interface (S/PDIF) see IEC 60958-3 (2006)

Sound: acoustic, 9–10

definition, 1

electrical signals, 9–10

fields

cylindrical, 8

plane, 8

spherical, 5–7

intensity, 8

inverse square law, 6

power, 4–5

pressure, 4, 7

speed, 1–2

wavelengths in air, 2–3

Sound level meters:

analyses, 217

averaging,215–216

classes, 217

description, 215

frequency weighting, 216

microphones, 215

output, 216

reading, 216

Space and digital representation, 18

Special waveforms, 21–22

Spectral phase display, 124–128

Spectrum analyzer:

1/1 or 1/3 octave, 201–202, 203–204

analog or digital, 202–204

introduction, 201

Speech:

formants, 25–26

pitch, 24

sound, 23–24

Speech Transmission Index (STI),209–210, 211

Speech Transmission for Public Address Systems see STI-PA

Square wave, 21

SSF see Surround Sound Forum

Standard volume indicator (SVI) see standard volume meter

Standard volume meter indicator (VU meter):

attenuation, 88

calibration, 90

confusion, 89

crest factor, 26

ear and loudness, 52

impedance, 88

“Modern”, 90

peaks, 90

specification, 87

Standards:

analog tape

audio, 152–154

video, 154–155, 155–156

ATSC Document ABS:2009, 161

BLITS, 158

broadcast

program, 160–161

transmission, 160

digital tape

audio, 157

video, 158

EBU recommendation for R, 128, 161

film

digital, 160

DVD/Blu-Ray conversion, 160

optical, 160

hard disk systems/file based systems, 158–159

internet, 161

masters for vinyl, 159

measurement systems,211–212

satellite, 160

SMPTE,114–115, 150

test tones, 154–155

Steven's method for loudness, 78–79

Stevens, S.S., 78

STI see Speech Transmission Index

STI-PA (Speech Transmission for Public Address Systems),210–211

Stirrup (ear), 48

Subjective scale for Speech Transmission Index, 210

Summation of audio signals 90° summation, 164–165

acoustic, 167–168

comb filtering, 166–167

dip frequencies, 166

electrical

correlated, 163–164

uncorrelated, 164

mono, 164

time delay in 90° phase shifting path, 165–166

Super Audio Compact disc (SACD), 13

Surround field synthesis (surround sound), 150

Surround sound see multichannel and surround sound Surround Sound Forum (SSF), 149

Sweeping filter see parametric equalizer

TC Electronic:

LM5/LM5D Meter, 101–102

loudspeakers and headphones digital interface, 191

TDS (Time Delay Spectrometry) measurement system, 205–206

Tectorial membrane, 49

THD see total harmonic distortion Time Delay Spectrometry, 205

Time weighting:

equivalent level, 60

exponential averaging, 57–58

impulse, 58–59

linear averaging, 57

peak, 59

program level meters, 59–60

TMH 10.2 system for surround sound, 150

Tones:

burst, 213

complex, 19–21

ear, 50, 51

musical instruments, 26–8

pure, 19, 50

sinusoidal, 213

test standards, 154–155

Total harmonic distortion (THD), 21

True Peak (TP), 26, 104,109–110

Tukey, John W., 199

Type I/II Electronic display definition, 100–101

Upmixing systems for surround sound, 150

Verband Deutscher Tonmeister (VDT), 149

Voice as sound source:

crest factor, 25

formants, 25–26

sound level, 23

speech spectrum, 23–24

Vowels and formants, 25–26

VU Meter see standard volume meter indicator

“Wave theory boundary area”, 3

Wavelength:

electrical signals, 10

sound, 2–3

White noise, 22

Zwicker, Eberhard, 75

Zwicker's method for loudness:

corrections, 77

description, 75–76

procedure, 76–77