“The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing.”
—Socrates
A great deal more information is available on the websites of the following sources:
The US Department of Energy (DOE)
The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Actual web addresses are not included in the location as these can change. The reader is advised to do a Google search as these organizations may have more than one website or subsite.
Also for additional (and in some cases, the same in different words) theory on gas turbines: http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/coalpower/turbines/refshelf/handbook/TableofContents.html
Most major corporations and even smaller companies now direct their information flow with mass email. Getting on a distribution list is very easy, so one needs to pick the vital companies or industries with care. The selection of “those who’ve got the best information” may also vary, so I will not outline a specific list, but suggest that keywords in this subsection can point the way. At this point in the gas turbine’s and the power generation industry’s history, there may be no more important development than what is likely to evolve into a carbon economy in many countries and eventually a global carbon economy.
One of the key information sources for keeping up with coal and coal related projects, are the sites run by the IEA and the ETN. This agency has branches all over the world, including the USA and they all share information. Special attention needs to be paid to the change in the gas turbine fuels industry. In the first edition of this book, I did point out that the field was widening with gas turbines able to burn fuels like residual oil, biomass, paper liquor, flue gas from making steel and a host of other materials (with appropriate design modifications). Now, despite the fracking activity globally which has driven down the price of natural gas, the biggest player globally, especially in coal rich countries, may continue to be coal.
In the energy field, there has been considerably more research done on coal gasification since the first edition of this book was published in 2007. Different grades of coal will have different impurities that have to be “cleared for use” or removed before the coal gas can be used as gas turbine fuel. If the impurities are dealt with appropriately, then the gas burns cleanly, as methane would.
The other area that has received considerably more attention in the gas turbine field is that of carbon sequestration and storage (CSS). Formerly an item that was given attention by the Scandinavians (the Statoil projects have been left in this edition) because of their emissions taxes, it is now an item of interest globally. The USA is proceeding with the construction of FutureGen and this bodes well for the CSS industry in the USA. The Chinese are working with several partners, including the USA on CSS.
3. Other firms whose material is sourced or referenced can also be found using the Google search engine, for instance:
This way the reader can get current information on new branches or country representatives.
4. CD Roms (Index for proceedings generally available on organiation websites)
All of the firms mentioned in 1 and 2 preceding publish their works in conference proceedings such as ASME’s (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) IGTI (International Gas Turbine Institute) and Pennwell PowerGen conferences. Conference proceedings can be purchased from the conference offices, in per-paper format or as a conference CD Rom.
5. Books (many available on CD Roms from publisher; check publishers websites)
Soares, C. Environmental Technology and Economics. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999.
Soares, C. Process Engineers Equipment Handbook. New York: McGraw Hill, 2001.
Bloch, H., and C. Soares. Turbo Expanders. Houston: Gulf, 2000.
Bloch, H., and C. Soares. Process Plant Machinery, 2nd edn. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998.
6. Technical Journals (abstracts if not entire paper generally available on organization websites)
Throughout this book, I used relevant extracts of articles I have written for various technical journals, including but not limited to the following:
Asian Electricity2, 1997 through 1999.
Middle East Electricity2, 1997 through 1999.
The Petroleum Economist, 1998.
International Power Generation (IPG)2, 1997 through 2006.
European Power News2, 2006
Lubrication engineers: http://www.stle.org/cls/directory.cfm
Oil analysis: http://www.oilanalysis.com/learning_center/default.asp?sectionlink=LubricantSelection
Association of Iron and Steel Engineers. The Lubrication Engineers Manual, 2nd edn. Pittsburgh: AISE, 1996.
Bloch, H. P. Practical Lubrication for Industrial Facilities. Lithburn, GA: Fairmont Press, 2000.
Exxon Mobil Corporation. Turbine Inspection Manual. Fairfax, VA: Exxon.
Swift, S. T., D. K. Butler, and W. Dewald. Turbine Oil Quality and Field Applications Requirements: Turbine Lubrication in the 21st Century. ASTM STP 1407. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM, 2001.
ASTM. Standard Practice for In-Service Monitoring of Mineral Turbine Oils for Steam and Gas Turbines. ASTM D4378-97, Annual Book of ASTM Standards, vol. 05.01. ASTM, 1997.
Control valves: http://www.ccivalve.com/presspower.shtml
Electrostatic charge monitoring: http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JOTRE9000124000002000288000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes
Failure prevention: http://www.mfpt.org/tcproc_a_z.htm
Resensors/transducers: http://sensors-transducers.global-spec.com/Industrial-Directory/analysis_csi_vibration http://www.harcolabs.com/new-sensors.html
Temperature-sensitive paint: http://www.aiaa.org/content.cfm?pageid=231&masterid=62 http://www1.mengr.tamu.edu/thtl/projects.html
Ultrasound diagnosis: http://www.swantech.com/technology.html
Walsh and Fletcher. Gas Turbine Performance. Blackwell Science, 1998.
This section presents, in alphabetical order, all unit conversions likely to be required for gas turbine performance calculations. For all tables, except that covering pressure or stress, a quantity in given units is multiplied by the value in the next column to the right to convert it to the units in the column to the right of the conversion factor. The conversions presented may be combined, for example for acceleration mile/hs may be converted to ft2/s by multiplying by 0.447 and then by 3.28084.
From | Multiply By | To/From This | Multiply By | To |
Acceleration | ||||
ft2/s | 0.3048 | m/s2 | 3.28084 | re’s |
km/hs | 0.27778 | m/s2 | 3.6 | km/hs |
mile/hs | 1.609344 | km/hs | 0.621371 | mile/hs |
mile/hs | 0.447 | in/s2 | 2.23714 | mile/hs |
Area | ||||
in2 | 645.16 | MM2 | 0.00155 | in2 |
in2 | 6.4516−04 | m2 | 1550.0 | in2 |
ft2 | 0.092903 | m2 | 10.7639 | ft2 |
Density | ||||
lb/ft3 | 16.0185 | kg/m3 | 0.062428 | lb/ft3 |
lb/in3 | 27.6799 | kg/m3 | 0.0361273 | lb/in3 |
lb/UKgal | 0.0997763 | kg/m3 | 10.0224 | lb/UKgal |
lb/USgal | 0.0830807 | kg/m3 | 12.0365 | lb/USgal |
Energy | ||||
Btu | 0.555558 | Chu | 1.8 | Btu |
Btu | 778.169 | ft lbf | 0.28507–03 | Btu |
Calorie | 1.05506 | kJ | 0.947817 | Btu |
Calorie | 401868 | J | 0.238846 | Calorie |
Calorie | 0.0022046 | Chu | 453.597 | Calorie |
Chu | 1899.105 | J | 0.0005265 | Chu |
Chu | 1400.7 | ft lbf | 7.1393–04 | Chu |
hp h | 1.98+6 | ft lbf | 5.0505–05 | hp h |
hp h | 2.68452 | MJ | 0.372506 | hp h |
kWh | 2.65522+6 | ft lbf | 3.76617–05 | kWh |
kWh | 3.600 | MJ | 0.277778 | kWh |
Force | ||||
kgf | 9.80665 | N | 0.0101972 | kgf |
lhf | 0.4535924 | kgf | 2.20462 | lhf |
lhf | 3.2174 | lb/ft s2 p(11) | 0.031081 | lhf |
lhf | 4A4822 | N | 0.224809 | lhf |
tonf (Imperial) | 9964.02 | N | 1.00361–04 | tonf |
Fuel consumption | ||||
mile/UKgal | 0.354006 | km/liter | 2.82481 | mile/UKgal |
mile/UKgal | 0.83267 | mile/USgal | 1.20096 | mile/UKgal |
mile/USgal | 0.29477 | km/liter | 3.39248 | mile/USgal |
Length | ||||
ft | 0.3048 | m | 3.28084 | ft |
in | 0.0254 | m | 39.3701 | in |
in | 25.4 | mm | 0.0393701 | in |
mile | 1.609344 | km | 0.621371 | mile |
nautical mile∗ | 1.852 | km | 0.539957 | nautical mile |
yard | 0.9144 | m | 1.09361 | yard |
Mass | ||||
lb | 0.45359237 | kg | 2.20462 | lb |
lb | 0.031056 | slug | 32.2174 | lb |
ounce | 28.3495 | g | 0.035274 | ounce |
tonne | 1000 | kg | 0.001 | tonne |
UK ton | 1016.05 | kg | 9.84207–04 | UK ton |
UK ton | 1.01605 | tonne | 0.984207 | UK ton |
Moment of inertia | ||||
lb ft2 | 0.0421401 | kg m2 | 23.7304 | lb ft2 |
in ft2 | 2.9264–04 | kg m2 | 3417.17 | kg m2 |
Momentum—angular | ||||
lb ft2/s | 0.0421401 | kg m2/s | 23.7304 | lb ft2/s |
Momentum—linear | ||||
lb ft/s | 0.138255 | kg m/s | 7.23301 | lb ft/s |
Power | ||||
Btu/s | 0.555558 | Chu/s | 1.799992 | Btu/s |
Btu/s | 778.169 | ft lbf/s | 1.28507–03 | Btu/s |
Btu/s | 1.05506 | kW | 0.947817 | Btu/s |
Chu/s | 2.54674 | hp | 0.39266 | Chu/s |
Chu/s | 1.899105 | kW | 0.5265 | Chu/s |
ft lbf/s | 1.35582 | W | 0.737562 | ft lbf/s |
hp | 550 | ft M/s | 1.81818–03 | hp |
hp | 0.7457 | kW | 1.34102 | hp |
PS∗∗ | 0.98632 | hp | 1.01387 | PS |
PS | 75 | kgf m/s | 0.0133333 | PS |
PS | 735.499 | W | 1359.62–06 | PS |
Specific energy | ||||
Btu/lb | 2.326 | kJ/kg | 0.429923 | Btu/lb |
Chu/lb | 45066.1 | ft2/s2 | 2.219–05 | Chu/lb |
Chu/lb | 4.1868 | kJ/kg | 0.238846 | Chu/lb |
ft lbf/lb | 2.98907 | J/kg | 0.334553 | ft lbf/lb |
Specific fuel consumption (SFC) | ||||
kg/kW h | 0.735499 | kg/PS h | 1.35962 | kg/kW h |
lb/lbf h | 0.10197 | kg/N h | 9.80665 | lb/lbf h |
lb/lbf h | 1.0197 | kg/daN h | 0.980681 | lb/lbf h |
lb/hp h | 0.60828 | kg/kW h | 1.64399 | lb/hp h |
lb/hp h | 0.447387 | kg/PS h | 2.2352 | lb/hp h |
Specific heat | ||||
Chu/lb K | 1 | 131u/lb R | 1 | Chu/lb K |
Chu/lb K | 4186.8 | J/kg K | 2.38846–04 | Chu/lb K |
ft lbf/lb R | 5.38032 | J/kg K | 0.185863 | ft lbf/lb R |
HPs/lb K | 1643.99 | J/kg K | 6.08277–04 | HPs/lb K |
Specific thrust | ||||
lbf s/lb | 9.80665 | N s/kg | 0.1019716 | lbf s/lb |
Torque | ||||
114 ft | 0.138255 | kgfm | 7.23301 | lbf ft |
Kit | 1.35582 | N m | 0.737562 | lb ft |
lbf in | 0.112985 | N m | 8.85075 | lbf in |
Velocity—angular | ||||
deg/s | 0.0174533 | rad/s | 57.2958 | deg/s |
rev/min (rpm) | 0.104720 | rad/s | 9.54930 | rev/min (rpm) |
rev/s | 6.28319 | rad/s | 0.159155 | rev/s |
Velocity—linear | ||||
ft/s | 0.59248 | kt | 1.68782 | ft/s |
kt† | 1.852 | km/h | 0.539957 | kt |
kt | 0.514444 | m/s | 1.94384 | kt |
mile/h | 1.46667 | ft/s | 0.681818 | mile/h |
mile/h | 1.609344 | km/h | 0.621371 | mile/h |
mile/h | 0.86896 | kt | 1.1508 | mile/h |
mile/h | 0.44704 | m/s | 2.23694 | mile/h |
Viscosity—dynamic | ||||
lb/ft s | 1.48816 | kg/m s | 0.671969 | lb/ft s |
lb/in s | 17.858 | kg/m s | 0.055997 | lb/in s |
lbfb/ft2 | 0.172369 | MN s/m2 | 5.80151 | lbf h/ft2 |
lbfs/ft2 | 47.8803 | kg/ms | 0.0208854 | lbfs/ft2 |
Pa s (kg/m s) | 1000 | cP | 0.001 | kg/m s |
Pa s | 1.0 | N OW | 1.0 | Pa s |
Viscosity | ||||
cSt | 106 | m2/s | 106 | cSt |
ft2/s | 0.092903 | m2/s | 10,7639 | ft2/s |
in2/s | 6.4516 | cm2/s | 0.155 | in2/s |
Volume | ||||
in3 | 16.3871 | cm3 | 0.0610237 | in3 |
ft3 | 28.3168 | liter | 0.0353147 | ft3 |
UKgal | 4.54609 | liter | 0.219969 | UKgal |
UKgal | 1.20095 | USgal | 0.832674 | UKgal |
USgal | 3.785 | liter | 0.2642 | USgal |
yard3 | 0.764555 | m3 | 1.30795 | yard3 |
∗This is the international nautical mile; the UK nautical mile is obsolete.
∗∗The PS is also called a metric.
†This is for the international knot; the UK nautical mile is obsolete.
See the following table for pressure and stress conversions.
atm | bar | in Hg | in H2O | kgf:cm2 | mm Hg | mm H2O | lbf/in2 (psi) | kPa | |
atm | 1.01325 | 29.9213 | 406.782 | 1.03323 | 760.0 | 10,332.3 | 14.6959 | 101.325 | |
bar | 0.986923 | 29.53 | 401.463 | 1.01972 | 750.062 | 10,197.2 | 14.5038 | 100 | |
in Hg | 0.0334211 | 0.0338639 | 13.5951 | 0.0345316 | 25.4 | 345.316 | 0.491154 | 3.38639 | |
in H2O | 0.0024583 | 0.002491 | 0.073556 | 0.00254 | 1.86832 | 25.4 | 0.036127 | 0.249089 | |
kgf/cm2 | 0.96784/ | 0.980665 | 28.959 | 393.701 | 735.559 | 10,000 | 14.2233 | 98.0665 | |
mm Hg | 0.0013158 | 0.0013332 | 0.03937 | 0.53524 | 0.0013595 | 13.5951 | 0.0193368 | 0.133322 | |
mm H2O | 0.0000978 | 0.0000981 | 0.002896 | 0.0393701 | 0.0001 | 0.073556 | 0.0014223 | 0.009807 | |
lbf/in2 (psi) | 0.068046 | 0.0689476 | 2.03602 | 27.68 | 0.070307 | 51.7149 | 703.07 | 6.89476 | |
kPa | 0.D098692 | 0.01 | 0.2953 | 4.01463 | 0.0101972 | 7.50062 | 101.972 | 0.145038 |
Notes: To convert a value in the units in the left-hand column to those in the top row multiply by the number at the junction of the row and column. The conversion factors for columns of H2O are for water at a uniform density of 1000 kg/m3 under the standard gravity of 9.80665 m/s2. The conversion factors for columns of Hg are for mercury at a uniform density of 13.590 kg/m3 under the standard gravity of 9.80665 m/s2. 1 kPa is equivalent to 1 kN/m2.
Conversion shown is to convert a quantity from units after the = sign to units before it.
C Celsius
F Fahrenheit
K Kelvin
R Rankine
3.17.157.6