Index
A
Above ground level (AGL), 395
Accommodation cyclic behavior, 292
“Accommodation”, 283–284
Active stall control, 153
“Adaptation”, 283–284
Adaptive linear element (ADALINE), 42
Advantages of wind energy, 8–10
compatibility with other land uses, 8
conservation of water, 9
cost effectiveness, 9
creation of jobs and local resources, 9–10
destructive mining, reduction of, 9
electricity cost, stability of, 10
international cooperation, 10
location, 8
national security, 8
power supply, diversification of, 10
provision for clean source of energy, 8
rapid instigation of power, 10
reduction of costly transport costs of electricity, 8
short commissioning time, 9
source of income for farmers, ranchers and foresters and grid operators, 10
sustainability, 8
Aegean and Mediterranean windmills, 133–135
Aerodynamic damping, 482–483
Aerodynamic rotor, 146
Aerodynamics and design of horizontal-axis wind turbines, 161
aerodynamic blade design, 178–181
blade element momentum (BEM) method, 167–172
design process, brief description of, 183
1D momentum equations, 163–166
steady blade element momentum method, use of, 172–178
unsteady loads and fatigue, 181–183
working of wind turbine, 162–163
Aeronautical Research Institute of Sweden (FFA), 206
Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators (ACER), 107–108
Age-specific death rate, 315–317
Air temperature, 31
Aire Limitée Adaptation dynamique Développement International (ALADIN) model, 40–41
Airfoil properties, relative importance of, 179t
Al Damashqi, 131
Al Massoudi, Ali, 131
Ambient excitation method, 483
American Petroleum Institute (API), 355–357
limitations of, 282–283
AMOS (Aerodrome Meteorological Observation System) wind data, 32
ANSYS software, 290–295
Asynchronous (induction) generator, 149–151
Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) based methods, 41
Auto-Regressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (ARCH), 42
B
Background, of wind energy, 5–7
Balance of systems, 443
Ballast stabilized spar buoy concept, 237
Barotrauma-related internal hemorrhaging, 476–477
Baseload generating plants, 377–378
Bat mortality, wind-turbine-induced, 476
Bayesian model, 34
Benchmark wind turbine present value cost analysis, 544–546
current income and expenditures per year, 544–546
investment, 544
payments, 544
Biot–Savart law, 170
Bird mortality, wind-turbine-induced, 476
Blades, 442
wave height and period in, 261t
Buoyancy stabilized semi-submersible, 237
Burbo wind farm, 226–227
C
Caisson flexibility, 370–371
Cambered airfoil, 194
Cantilever cross-coupling term, explanation of, 337f
Capacitor bank, 151–152
CAPEX (Capital expenditure), 239
Carbon footprint of storing wind energy, 383–385
Carbon-trading and carbon reduction target, 88
Catastrophic failures, 314
Central government, 79
CfD (Contract for Difference), 227–228
Challenges facing the wind turbine industry, 10–12
aesthetics, 11
frequency of light and shadows, 11–12
good sites often in remote locations, 11
initial cost, 12
intermittency of wind, 11
new and unfamiliar technology, 12
noise pollution, 11
safety, 11
shortage of rare earth element, neodymium, 12
turbine blades damaging wildlife, 11
China, wind energy development in, 76–80
barriers to, 81–86
demand response and energy storage, lack of, 84
differential priorities between central government and local governments, 85
nonrenewable power plants, overcapacity in, 81
poor grid connectivity, 83
vested interests between coal companies and the government, 85–86
well-functioned ancillary service market, lack of, 83–84
wind curtailment, 81–82
drivers of, 86–88
carbon-trading and carbon reduction target, 88
coal-fired power plants’ retrofit and energy storage, 87
emerging ancillary service market, 88
energy coordination, 86–87
smart DR, 87–88
electricity market and wind energy market, 76–78
future of, 89–91
distributed generation deployment and proactive transmission planning, 89
merit-order-based dispatch, 90–91
offshore wind power planning, 89–90
pricing improvement, 91
smart grid, 90
key players in wind energy market, 78–80
central government, 79
grid companies, 80
local governments, 79–80
wind energy developers, 78
wind turbine manufacturers, 78–79
wind curtailment rate 2010–16, 82f
wind energy capacity development 2001–15, 76f
Chinese waters
extreme wind and wave loading condition in, 257–260
foundations supporting wind turbines used in, 254f
ground conditions in, 260–265
wave height and period in, 261t
Circular tuning liquid column dampers (CTLCD), 484–485
Civil engineering aspects of wind farm and wind turbine structures, 221
choice of foundations for a site, 228
energy challenge, 221
foundation types, 228–238
floating turbine system, 237–238
gravity-based foundation system, 233
pile foundations, 234–235
seabed frame/jacket supporting supported on pile/caissons, 235–237
suction buckets, 233–234
general arrangement of wind farm, 228
site layout, spacing of turbines, and geology of the site, 239–242
economy of scales for foundation, 241–242
Westermost Rough, 240
wind farm and Fukushima nuclear disaster, 221–223
performance of near shore wind farm during 2012 Tohoku earthquake, 221–223
wind farm site selection, 224–228
ASIDE on the economics, 227–228
Burbo wind farm, 226–227
Claessens, 195
retrofit and energy storage, 87
Coal-heavy electricity system, 67–68
Coleman conversion method, 483
Combined heat-and-power (CHP), 84
Commercial forest plantations, 509–511
Commercial operating date (COD), 313
Competitive Renewable Energy Zone (CREZ), 433
Computational simulations, 283
Conditional reliability, 319–320
Conference of the Parties (COP 21), 51
Connection-related network codes, 109–110
Consents and legislations, 226
Contemporary wind turbine technologies, 155–159
variable-speed wind turbines
Control system and wind turbine control capabilities, 152–155
Corrective maintenances, 315
Corrosion, 304
Cost analysis, wind energy, 539
Crane free solution, 233
Crane-assisted solution, 233
Cross-coupling stiffnesses, 338
Current Policies Scenario (CPS), 527
Curtailing renewable resources, 380
Cut-in speed speed, 29–30
Cut-out wind speed, 29–30
Cyclic hardening, 284
Cyclic overturning moments, 279
Cyclic softening, 284
Cyclic stress ratio (CSR)
in the soil in the shear zone, 363
D
“Darrieus” wind turbine, 188–189
“Darrieus-type” VAWTs, 190–191
Demand response (DR), 84
DR and energy storage, lack of, 84
Det Norske Veritas (DNV) code, 354
Differential priorities between central government and local governments, 85
Dimensional analysis, 360
Discrete element method (DEM) analysis, 285
monopile analysis using, 286–290
Distributed generation deployment and proactive transmission planning, 89
Donghai Bridge 100 MW Offshore Wind Power Demonstration Project, 243
Double-slotted (MFFS) multielement wind turbine blade, 213f
Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG), 150–151
Drag, 6–7
Dutch and European windmills, 135–138
Dynamic–structure–foundation–soil interaction, 256
E
Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Data Center, 56
East China Sea, 257–258
wave height and period in, 261t
Economics of wind power generation, 535
accounting for PTC as well as depreciation and taxes, 550–553
benchmark wind turbine present value cost analysis, 544–546
current income and expenditures per year, 544–546
investment, 544
payments, 544
economic considerations, 537–539
intermittence factor (IF), 542–543
investment tax credit, 546
land rents, royalties, and project profitability, 543
levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), 539–540
net present value, 540–541
price and cost concepts, 542
production tax credit (PTC), 546
project lifetime, 543
renewable energy production incentive, 547–548
straight line depreciation, 541
transmission and grid issues, 553–554
wind energy cost analysis, 539
wind turbine present value cost analysis accounting for PTC, 548–550
current income and expenditures per year, 548–550
payments, 548
wind turbines prices, 542
Economy of scales for foundation, 241–242
EERA-DTOC project, 121
E-highway 2050 project, 121
Electrical energy storage (EES), 381–382
Electricity market and wind energy market, 76–78
Emerging ancillary service market, 88
Enercon E115 blade, 205
Energy Capture Optimization by Revolutionary Onboard Turbine Reshape (ECO ROTR), 216
Energy challenge, 221
Energy coordination, 86–87
Energy management system (EMS), 115
Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP), 26
Energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, 3–4
ENTSO-E Ten Year Network Development Plan (TYNDP), 105
Environmental and structural safety issues related to wind energy, 475
environmental issues and countermeasures, 475–481
birds and bats, effects on, 476–478
climate change and considerations, 480–481
marine species, effects on, 478
noise problems and possible solutions, 478–479
visual impacts and mitigation, 479–480
wind turbine towers, 481–485
health monitoring and vibration control of, 483–485
structural performances under wind and seismic loads, 481–483
Environmentally friendly generation dispatching (ESGD) model, 90–91
EROI value, 382–383
Estimation of wind energy potential and prediction of wind power, 25
estimating wind power based on wind speed measurements, 33–34
further considerations for wind speed assessment, 38–39
main aspects of wind assessment program, 28–33
principles for successful development for wind assessment program, 26–28
wind resource estimation project, 34–38
wind speed and power forecasting, 39–44
European wind integration projects and studies, 119–121
European windmills, 135–138
EWIS project, 120
External loading conditions, complexity of, 353–355
F
FACTS, 108
Failure mode effect criticality analysis (FMECA), 300–301
Failure rate in reliability, See Hazard rate function
Farlie–Gumbel–Morgenstern (FGM) approach, 34
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC), 423–424
Feed-forward back-propagation (FFBP), 42
Finite element analysis (FEA), soil models used in, 283–285
Finite Element Models (FEM), 183
FlexiSlip induction generators, 150
Floating system, 233
Floating turbine system, 237–238
“Float-out and sink” solution, 233
Flow angle, 168
Flux, 19–20
Forecasting, 319–320
Forecasting wind speed, 40
Fossil fuel, 4–5
Foundation, 443
and cover, 443
Foundation design, 269–271
challenges in monopile foundation design and installation, 270–271
jacket on flexible piles, 271
Foundation design, importance of, 252–253
Foundation stiffness for design of offshore wind turbines, estimating, 329
comparison with SAP 2000 analysis, 349–350
obtaining foundation stiffness from standard and advanced method, 337–344
example problem, 340–344
pile head deflections and rotations, 345
prediction of the natural frequency, 346–349
Foundations
choice of, 228
definition, 228
for fixed (grounded) systems, 250f
technical review/appraisal of, 358
types, 228–238
floating turbine system, 237–238
gravity-based foundation system, 233
pile foundations, 234–235
seabed frame or jacket supporting supported on pile or caissons, 235–237
suction buckets, 233–234
Foundation–soil interaction
advanced analysis to study, 283–285
discrete element model analysis basics, 285
soil models in finite element analysis, 283–285
450 Scenario (450S), 527
Fractional reinvestment, 445
Free-flowing wind energy, 423–424
Frequency converter, 152
Fujian Sea, 262–263
Fukushima nuclear disaster
wind farm and, 221–223
G
Gamesa G128, 205
GBS from Thornton Bank Project, 234f
Gearbox spares planning, 320–321
Gearing and generator, 443
General Electric Company, 55
Generalized Auto-Regressive Conditional Heteroskedasticity (GARCH), 42
Generation technology lifecycle, 384t
Generator, 147–151
asynchronous (induction) generator, 149–151
synchronous generator, 148
Geographic Information System (GIS) data, 26
German system, wind power in, 95
energy policy goals, 96t
European wind integration projects and studies, 119–121
integration of renewables in Germany and Europe, 95–98
network operation and grid development, 102–110
connection-related network codes, 109–110
innovative methods to plan and operate the power system, 105–108
market-related network codes, 108–109
system operation network codes, 108
new control concepts for PE-dominated power systems, 111–112
onshore and offshore wind development, 99–102
sector coupling concepts, 118–119
virtual power plants, 117–118
wind farm clusters, 114–117
wind power forecasts, 112–113
“Giromill”, 190–191
Glauert correction, 166–167
Global Digital Elevation Model (GTOPO30), 56
Global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 3–4
Global potential for wind-generated electricity, 51
methodology, 54–58
results, 58–68
China perspective, 65–68
global perspective, 58–60
US perspective, 61–64
Global storage capacity, 379t
Global warming potential (GWP), 522–523
Global wind industry, net energy trajectory of, 450–452
Greenhouse gases (GHG), 75
Grid companies, 80
Grid development, network operation and, 102–110
connection-related network codes, 109–110
innovative methods to plan and operate the power system, 105–108
market-related network codes, 108–109
system operation network codes, 108
Grid EROI, 382–383
Grid flexibility, 377–378
Ground conditions, in Chinese waters, 260–265
Bohai Sea, 261–264
seismic effects, 264–265
Grounded system, 231–232
H
Halladay design, 139
Harmonization, 447–449
of study boundaries and data, 446
Harnessing wind power, history of, 125
Aegean and Mediterranean windmills, 133–135
Dutch and European windmills, 135–138
historical developments, 139–141
Islamic civilization windmills, 130–132
medieval European windmills, 132–133
wind machines in antiquity, 129–130
windmills applications, 141
Hazard rate function, 315–317
Heavy rare earth element oxides (HREO), 532
Heavy rare earth elements (HREE), 517
High Resolution Local Area Model (HIRLAM), 40–41
High temperature superconductors (HTS), 520–521
Horizontal-axis machines, 135–137
Horns Rev 1, monopile for, 340–344
H-rotor, 190–191
Hub, 442
Hydroelectricity production, 4
Hydrostatic ETA model, 40–41
I
Infant failures, 304
InnoBlade, 205
Innovative methods to plan and operate power system, 105–108
challenge for operation of transmission grid, 106
dynamic line rating, 106
impact of reduced inertia on power system frequency, 106–108
Installation date, 313
Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEC), 355–357
Integration time step (ITS) method, 291
Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), 527
Intermittence factor (IF), 542–543
Internal energy (IE), 51–52
International Energy Agency (IEA), 526–528
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP), 55–56
Investment, 544
Investment tax credit (ITC), 546
IRPWIND project, 121
Islamic civilization windmills, 130–132
Island of Grand Cayman, 188
J
Jacket on flexible piles, 271
JONSWAP (Joint North Sea Wave Project) spectrum, 256
K
Kaimal spectrum, 256
Kaimal wind spectrum, 354
Kalman filter based methods, 41–42
Kamisu (Hasaki) wind farm, 222f
Kentish Flats and Thanet (UK), 275
Kinematic hardening, 284–285
Kinetic energy flux, 19–21
Kirke’s prototype machine, 197
L
Land rents, royalties, and project profitability, 543
effects of wind farms on landscape, 508–512
landscape and visual effects, 512
landscape effects, 509–511
visual effects, 511
mitigation, 512–514
strategic approach, 513–514
passion for, 493
perception of wind farms, 502–506
composition, 504
height and size, 502–503
movement, 504–506
power generation objects, landscapes with, 506–508
technological advancement, 498–502
Landwirtschaftskammer Schleswig-Holstein (LWK), 309
Last known operating date, 313
Least-cost wind integration solution, 426
Levelized cost of offshore wind, 226
cumulative energy demand (CED), 444
energy payback time (EPBT), 444–445
fractional reinvestment, 445
metaanalysis, 445–446
harmonization of study boundaries and data, 446
literature screening, 446
literature search, 445–446
results and discussion, 446–452
components, 449
harmonization, 447–449
net energy trajectory of the global wind industry, 450–452
trends in parameters, 450
wind energy technologies, 440–443
balance of systems, 443
foundation, 443
nacelle, 442–443
rotor, 442
tower, 443
Life-cycle impact assessment (LCIA), 444
Life-cycle inventory (LCI), 444
Lifetime distributions
classification of, 317t
reliability models for, 316t
Lift, 6–7
Lift coefficient, 203–204
Light rare earth element oxides (LREO), 532
Light rare earth elements (LREE), 517
Limit State Design philosophy, 252–253
Line commutated converter technology (LCC-HVDC), 110
LLC truck, 204
Loads acting on foundations, 254–257
extreme wind and wave loading condition in Chinese waters, 257–260
types and nature of, 254–260
Loads acting on OWT, 354f
Local governments, 79–80
Long-term forecasting, 40
Low carbon energy (LCE), 221
Low-frequency demand disconnection (LFDD), 110
Low-voltage demand disconnection (LVDD), 110
M
Marine aspects, 225
Market-related network codes, 108–109
Markov chain models, 42
Markov Chain Monte Carlo sampling methods, 34
Mass flux, 19–20
Mean Absolute Error (MAE), 427–428
Mean time between failures (MTBFs), 299
Mean time to failure (MTTF), 303
Medieval European windmills, 132–133
Mediterranean windmills, 133–135
Medium-term forecasting, 40
Merit-order-based dispatch, 90–91
Mesoscale numerical weather prediction (MNWP) models, 36–37
Method of Independent Storms (MIS), 38
Metrics, 302–303
Microgeneration Installation Standard MIS3003 issue 2.0, 396–397
Micro-wind
fundamental concern for, 395–401
future for, 414–415
Mid-Continent Independent System Operator (MISO), 427
Mill’s ratio, 315–317
Modeling of capital costs, 226
Modern utility-scale wind turbines, 299
Modified Gumbel, 38
Mohr–Coulomb material model, 344
Monopile analysis
using DEM, 286–290
using FEM, 290–295
design and installation, challenges in, 270–271
Monopile system, 3D view of, 291f
Mounted turbines, building, 401–414
field trial observations, 411–414
findings, 409–410
rural building mounted turbine, 405–406
suburban building mounted turbine, 407
urban building mounted turbine, 408–409
MS3DJH/3R models, 36
MSES code, 209
Multielement airfoils for wind turbines, 203
multielement wind turbine blades, 206–215
multielement wind turbine research, 215–216
segmented blades, 205
structural benefits, 205–206
transportation benefits, 204–205
Multiple Architecture System (MAS), 43
Multipod foundation wind turbines, 370f
scaling laws for OWTs supported on, 368–373
Multipod foundations, 236f
N
Nacelle, 442–443
foundation and cover, 443
gearing and generator, 443
National grids, integration into, 419
wind integration, 419–421
current/standard measures for, 421–429
future of, 429–434
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 445
Natural frequency, 253
prediction of, 346–349
Navigation risk assessment survey, 226
NdFeB permanent magnet, 520–521
Net present value, 540–541
Network codes
connection-related, 109–110
market-related, 108–109
system operation, 108
New Policies Scenario (NPS), 527
New York State Energy Research and Development Authority, 26–27
Noise problems and possible solutions, 478–479
Nonlinear Winkler spring
standard method based on beam on, 281–283
Nonrenewable power plants, overcapacity in, 81
North Hoyle project, 253
North Seas Countries Offshore Grid Initiative (NSCOGI), 105
Not-In-My-Backyard syndrome (NIMBY), 479
NSON project, 121
O
Offshore substation, 230f
Offshore wind farms around United Kingdom, 224f
Offshore wind farms in China Sea, 246t
Offshore wind potential in China, 243–245
Offshore wind power planning, 89–90
complexity of external loading conditions, 353–355
design challenges, 355–358
dynamic sensitivity of OWT structures, 245–247
mechanical model, 247f
physical modeling of, 359–361
definition of scaling laws for investigating OWTs, 360–361
dimensional analysis, 360
reflective loop for, 359f
prediction of prototype response, physical modeling for, 358–359
resonance-type problem, 355–357
scaling laws for OWTs supported on monopiles, 361–368
bending strain in the monopile, 365
CSR in the soil in the shear zone, 363
experimental investigation for studying long-term response of 1–100 scale OWT, 366–368
fatigue in the monopile, 365–366
monopile foundation, 361
rate of soil loading, 364
strain field in the soil around the laterally loaded pile, 361–363
system dynamics, 364–365
scaling laws for OWTs supported on multipod foundations, 368–373
typical experimental setups and results, 372–373
technical review/appraisal of new types of foundations, 358
Oil age, 221
1 g testing, 358–359
1D momentum equations, 163–166
Onshore and offshore wind development, 99–102
OptiSlip/FlexiSlip induction generators, 150
Overhead lines (OHLs), 106
Overnight capital cost, 439
P
PacifiCorp, 428–429
Pattern-painted wind turbine blades, 477–478
Peaks-Over-Threshold (POT), 38
PE-dominated power systems, new control concepts for, 111–112
PEGASE project, 120–121
Permanent magnets, development of, 521f
Photovoltaic (PV) technology, 429–430
Pierson–Moskowitz wave spectrum, 354
Pile foundations, 234–235
Pitch bearing maintenance scheduling, 321–324
Pitch control (active control), 153
Plasticity, 284–285
Plug-in electric vehicles, 62
Pole mounted turbines, 411–414
Poor grid connectivity, 83
Potential energy (PE), 51–52
Potential of wind energy worldwide, 13
Potential wind-generated electricity, 62–63
Power Coefficient, 21
Power electronic interface, 151–152
Power electronics (PE), 102
Power export/grid connection, 226
Power forecasting, wind speed and, 39–44
Power generation objects, landscapes with, 506–508
Power spectral densities (PSDs), 246–247
Prandtl’s tip loss correction, 171
Premature failures, 304
Preventive maintenances, 315
Price and cost concepts, 542
Probability of failure, 319–320
Production tax credit (PTC), 546
accounting for PTC as well as depreciation and taxes, 550–553
wind turbine present value cost analysis accounting for, 548–550
PROFOIL code, 209
Project lifetime, 543
Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act (PURPA), 419
R
Radial basis function (RBF), 42
Random failures, 304–305
Rank Regression, 317–318
Raptor Nonlinear (Raptor NL) software, 36
Rare earth elements (REE), 517
background of, 517–519
-dependent permanent magnets, 521
-dependent technologies, 518f
future REE supply, implications for, 529–531
global REE supply, 519–520
global wind energy projections, 526–528
life cycle assessment of use of REE magnets in wind turbines, 522–526
within the periodic table, 518f
“Ratcheting”, 283–284
Rated power, 29–30
Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (RAMS) model, 43–44
Reliability, defined, 301–302
Reliability engineering, 312–320
data collection, 312–315
forecasting, 319–320
model development, 315–319
Reliability of wind turbines, 299
case studies, 320–324
gearbox spares planning, 320–321
pitch bearing maintenance scheduling, 321–324
current status, 305–312
terminology, 301–303
failure types, 304–305
metrics, 302–303
taxonomy, 303
ReliaWind, 309
Renewable energies (REs), 75
Renewable energy production incentive, 547–548
Renewables, integration of
in Germany and Europe, 95–98
Response spectrum analysis method, 482–483
Risk-based inspection approach, 324
Rotor, 442
blades, 442
hub, 442
Rudong intertidal wind farm, 255f
Rural building mounted turbine, 405–406
S
Samarium cobalt (SmCo) magnet, 517–519
Sandia National Laboratory, 194
SAP 2000, 349–350
SAVEWIND project, 121
“Savonius” VAWT, 189–190
SC(2)-0714 airfoil, 206
SCADA system, 313
Scaling laws
for OWTs supported on monopiles, 361–368
bending strain in the monopile, 365
CSR in the soil in the shear zone, 363
experimental investigation for studying long-term response of 1–100 scale OWT, 366–368
fatigue in the monopile, 365–366
monopile foundation, 361
rate of soil loading, 364
strain field in the soil around the laterally loaded pile, 361–363
system dynamics, 364–365
for OWTs supported on multipod foundations, 368–373
typical experimental setups and results, 372–373
SCOE (Society’s Cost of Energy), 227–228
Seabed frame/jacket supporting supported on pile or caissons, 235–237
Secant Young’s Modulus of soil, 287–288
Sector coupling concepts, 118–119
Segmented blades, 205
design criteria, 265–266
Short-term forecasting, 39
Silsoe, 402–403
Single-degree-of-freedom model, 482–483
Single-fed induction generator (SFIG), 522
micro-wind, fundamental concern for, 395–401
micro-wind, future for, 414–415
mounted turbines, building, 401–414
field trial observations, 411–414
findings, 409–410
rural building mounted turbine, 405–406
suburban building mounted turbine, 407
urban building mounted turbine, 408–409
Smart DR, 87–88
Smart grid, 90
SODAR (Sound Detection and Ranging system), 30
Soft starter, 151
Soft–soft structures, 251
Soft–stiff design, 257
Soft–stiff structures, 251
Soil models in finite element analysis, 283–285
Soil–pile model, 291
Soil–structure interaction (SSI) analysis of OWT foundations, numerical methods for, 275
advanced analysis to study foundation–soil interaction, 283–285
example application of, 285–295
monopile analysis using DEM, 286–290
monopile analysis using FEM, 290–295
need for, 281
standard method based on beam on nonlinear Winkler spring, 281–283
Soil–structure interaction, challenges in analysis of, 266–269
Solar and Wind Energy Resource Assessment (SWERA) project, 26
Solar PV, 431–432
and wind turbines, 377
wave height and period in, 261t
Southwest Power Pool, 427
Space frame tower (SFT) turbine, 216
Stall control (passive control), 153
Standard Gumbel, 38
State Grid Corporation (SGC), 78
State of the Art Wind Technologies (SAWT), 199
Steady blade element momentum method, use of, 172–178
Stiff–stiff structures, 251
Stored wind energy
carbon footprint of storing wind energy, 383–385
energy and carbon intensities of, 375
key characteristics for storage, 378–380
need for storage, 377–378
net energy analysis of storing and curtailing wind resources, 380–383
Straight line depreciation, 541
Structural vibration control technologies, 484–485
Struts, 199–200
Substructure, 231–233
Suburban building mounted turbine, 407
Suction buckets, 233–234
Suction caissons, 233–234
Support structure design, dynamic issues in, 247–253
Suspensions, 313–314
Symmetric airfoils, 194
Synchronous generator, 148
System operation network codes, 108
T
Taiwan Strait, 258
Tangential force coefficient, 203–204
Taxonomy, 303
3P loading, 353–354
Tjaereborg rotor, 174–177
TLP (tension leg platform) concept, 237
Tohoku earthquake (2012), 221–223
Tower, 443
TRADEWIND project, 120
Transition piece (TP), 234–235
Transmission system, 146–147
Tuning liquid column dampers (TLCD), 484–485
Tuning liquid dampers (TLD), 484–485
Tuning mass dampers (TMD), 484–485
Turbine blades, extraction of wind energy by, 6–7
Turbine power capture, 21–22
Typhoon related damage to wind turbines in China, 258–260
Typhoons, 257
U
UK’s National Micro-wind Field Trial, 401
Ultrahigh voltage (UHV) transmission lines, 86–87
Ultrasonic anemometer, 407f
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), 51
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 3–4
University of Southampton (UoS) building, 395
Urban building mounted turbine, 408–409
US Geological Survey (USGS), 56
V
design guidelines, 188–200
blade airfoil choice, 194–197
blade Reynolds number, 198
blade-tip vortices, 197
lift versus drag-based VAWT, 189–192
number of blades, 199
power coefficient, 189
starting, 193–194
struts, 199–200
turbine diameter, 198–199
turbine mass, 198
history, 185
vertical axis wind farms, 186–188
initial research on VAWT farms, 186–187
power density, 187–188
Very short-term forecasting, 39
Vestas, 216
Vested interests between coal companies and the government, 85–86
Vindstat, 309
Visual effects, 511
landscape and, 512
Visual impacts and mitigation, 479–480
Voltage source converter technology (VSC-HVDC), 110
Volume flux, 19–20
VTT, 309
W
Wake turbulence, 239f
Water-driven mills, 128
Well-functioned ancillary service market, lack of, 83–84
Westermost Rough, 240
Wind, 17
generation of, 17
types, 18–19
Wind assessment program
main aspects of, 28–33
principles for successful development for, 26–28
Wind atlases, 27
Wind cluster management system (WCMS), 115
Wind curtailment, 81–82
Wind energy developers, 78
Wind energy flow rate, 20
Wind energy-Information-Data-Pool (WInD-Pool), 309
Wind farms
clusters, 114–117
in Europe, 225f
on landscape, 508–512
landscape and visual effects, 512
landscape effects, 509–511
visual effects, 511
perception of, 502–506
composition, 504
height and size, 502–503
movement, 504–506
site selection, 224–228
ASIDE on the economics, 227–228
Burbo wind farm, 226–227
Wind integration, 419–421
current/standard measures for, 421–429
future of, 429–434
Wind machines in antiquity, 129–130
Wind physics, 17
assessment program, 34–35
capture, 21–23
efficiency in extracting, 21–23
estimating, based on wind speed measurements, 33–34
fundamental equation of, 19–21
Wind power forecasts, 112–113
Wind power fundamentals, 15
fundamental equation of wind power, 19–21
wind physics basics: what is wind and how wind is generated, 17
wind power capture: efficiency in extracting wind power, 21–23
wind types: brief overview of wind power meteorology, 18–19
Wind power meteorology, 18–19
Wind resource estimation project, 34–38
Wind resources, 225
Wind speed
assessment, 38–39
and power forecasting, 39–44
Wind speed forecasting models, classification of, 40f
Wind speed measurements, estimating wind power based on, 33–34
Wind turbine, working of, 162–163
Wind turbine generators (WTGs), 270–271
Wind turbine manufacturers, 78–79
Wind turbine technologies, 145
aerodynamic rotor, 146
contemporary wind turbine technologies, 155–159
control system and wind turbine control capabilities, 152–155
generator, 147–151
asynchronous (induction) generator, 149–151
synchronous generator, 148
power electronic interface, 151–152
transmission system, 146–147
Wind turbine towers, 481–485
health monitoring and vibration control of, 483–485
structural performances under wind and seismic loads, 481–483
Wind turbines prices, 542
Wind-energy-induced environmental issues and countermeasures, 475–481
birds and bats, effects on, 476–478
climate change and considerations, 480–481
marine species, effects on, 478
noise problems and possible solutions, 478–479
visual impacts and mitigation, 479–480
WindGrid project, 120
Windmills, 128
Aegean and Mediterranean windmills, 133–135
applications, 141
Dutch and European windmills, 135–138
Islamic civilization windmills, 130–132
medieval European windmills, 132–133
Windspire VAWT, 195
WindStats, 309
Wissenschaftliches Mess- und Evaluierungsprogramm (WMEP), 309
Wound rotor induction generator (WRIG), 150–151
Wound rotor synchronous generator (WRSG), 148
Wound rotor with slip rings, 150f
X
Xcel Energy Colorado, 427–428
XFOIL code, 178–179
“XL” monopile, 270–271
XL/XXL piles, 241
Y
wave height and period in, 261t
Z
Zero-emission wind power, 88
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