- Preliminaries
- Dedication
- Preface
- Acknowledgments
- Author
- Chapter 1 Distribution System Planning and Automation
- 1.1 Introduction
- 1.2 Distribution System Planning
- 1.3 Factors Affecting System Planning
- 1.4 Present Distribution System Planning Techniques
- 1.5 Distribution System Planning Models
- 1.6 Distribution System Planning in the Future
- 1.7 Future Nature of Distribution Planning
- 1.8 Central Role of the Computer in Distribution Planning
- 1.9 Impact of Dispersed Storage and Generation
- 1.10 Distribution System Automation
- 1.11 Summary and Conclusions
- References
- Figure 1.1
- Table 1.1
- Chapter 2 Load Characteristics
- Chapter 3 Application of Distribution Transformers
- 3.1 Introduction
- 3.2 Types of Distribution Transformers
- 3.3 Regulation
- 3.4 Transformer Efficiency
- 3.5 Terminal or Lead Markings
- 3.6 Transformer Polarity
- 3.7 Distribution Transformer Loading Guides
- 3.8 Equivalent Circuits of a Transformer
- 3.9 Single-Phase Transformer Connections
- 3.10 Three-Phase Connections
- 3.11 Three-Phase Transformers
- 3.12 T or Scott Connection
- 3.13 Autotransformer
- 3.14 Booster Transformers
- 3.15 Amorphous Metal Distribution Transformers
- 3.16 Nature of Zero-Sequence Currents
- 3.17 Zigzag Power Transformers
- 3.18 Grounding Transformers Used in the Utility Systems
- 3.19 Protection Scheme of a Distribution Feeder Circuit
- Problems
- References
- Figure 3.1
- Figure 3.1
- Figure 3.2
- Figure 3.3
- Figure 3.4
- Figure 3.5
- Figure 3.6
- Figure 3.7
- Figure 3.8
- Figure 3.9
- Figure 3.10
- Figure 3.11
- Figure 3.12
- Figure 3.13
- Figure 3.14
- Figure 3.15
- Figure 3.16
- Figure 3.17
- Figure 3.18
- Figure 3.19
- Figure 3.20
- Figure 3.21
- Figure 3.22
- Figure 3.23
- Figure 3.24
- Figure 3.25
- Figure 3.26
- Figure 3.27
- Figure 3.28
- Figure 3.29
- Figure 3.30
- Figure 3.31
- Figure 3.32
- Figure 3.33
- Figure 3.34
- Figure 3.35
- Figure 3.36
- Figure 3.37
- Figure 3.38
- Figure 3.39
- Figure 3.40
- Figure 3.41
- Figure 3.42
- Figure 3.43
- Figure 3.44
- Figure 3.45
- Figure 3.46
- Figure 3.47
- Figure 3.48
- Figure 3.49
- Figure 3.50
- Figure 3.51
- Figure 3.52
- Figure 3.53
- Figure 3.54
- Figure 3.55
- Figure 3.56
- Figure 3.57
- Figure 3.58
- Figure 3.59
- Figure 3.60
- Figure 3.61
- Figure 3.62
- Figure 3.63
- Figure 3.64
- Figure 3.65
- Figure 3.66
- Figure 3.67
- Figure 3.68
- Figure 3.69
- Figure 3.70
- Figure 3.71
- Figure 3.72
- Figure 3.73
- Figure 3.74
- Figure 3.75
- Figure 3.76
- Figure 3.77
- Figure 3.78
- Figure 3.79
- Figure 3.80
- Figure 3.81
- Figure 3.82
- Figure 3.83
- Figure 3.84
- Figure 3.85
- Figure 3.86
- Figure 3.87
- Figure 3.88
- Figure P3.1
- Figure P3.3
- Figure P3.6
- Figure P3.7
- Figure P3.8
- Table 3.1
- Chapter 4 Design of Subtransmission Lines and Distribution Substations
- 4.1 Introduction
- 4.2 Subtransmission
- 4.3 Distribution Substations
- 4.4 Substation Bus Schemes
- 4.5 Substation Location
- 4.6 Rating of a Distribution Substation
- 4.7 General Case: Substation Service Area with n Primary Feeders
- 4.8 Comparison of the Four- and Six-Feeder Patterns
- 4.9 Derivation of the K Constant
- 4.10 Substation Application Curves
- 4.11 Interpretation of Percent Voltage Drop Formula
- 4.12 Capability of Facilities
- 4.13 Substation Grounding
- 4.14 Substation Grounding
- 4.15 Ground Conductor Sizing Factors
- 4.16 Mesh Voltage Design Calculations
- 4.17 Step Voltage Design Calculations
- 4.18 Types of Ground Faults
- 4.19 Ground Potential Rise
- 4.20 Transmission Line Grounds
- 4.21 Types of Grounding
- 4.22 Transformer Classifications
- Problems
- References
- Figure 4.1
- Figure 4.1
- Figure 4.2
- Figure 4.3
- Figure 4.4
- Figure 4.5
- Figure 4.6
- Figure 4.7
- Figure 4.8
- Figure 4.9
- Figure 4.10
- Figure 4.11
- Figure 4.12
- Figure 4.13
- Figure 4.14
- Figure 4.15
- Figure 4.16
- Figure 4.17
- Figure 4.18
- Figure 4.19
- Figure 4.20
- Figure 4.21
- Figure 4.22
- Figure 4.23
- Figure 4.24
- Figure 4.25
- Figure 4.26
- Figure 4.27
- Figure 4.28
- Figure 4.29
- Figure 4.30
- Figure 4.31
- Figure 4.32
- Figure 4.33
- Figure 4.34
- Figure 4.35
- Figure 4.36
- Figure 4.37
- Figure 4.38
- Figure 4.39
- Figure 4.40
- Figure 4.41
- Figure 4.42
- Figure 4.43
- Figure 4.44
- Figure 4.45
- Figure 4.46
- Figure 4.47
- Figure 4.48
- Figure 4.49
- Figure 4.50
- Figure 4.51
- Figure 4.52
- Figure 4.53
- Figure 4.54
- Figure 4.55
- Figure 4.56
- Figure 4.57
- Figure 4.58
- Figure 4.59
- Figure 4.60
- Table 4.1
- Chapter 5 Design Considerations of Primary Systems
- 5.1 Introduction
- 5.2 Radial-Type Primary Feeder
- 5.3 Loop-Type Primary Feeder
- 5.4 Primary Network
- 5.5 Primary-Feeder Voltage Levels
- 5.6 Primary-Feeder Loading
- 5.7 Tie Lines
- 5.8 Distribution Feeder Exit: Rectangular-Type Development
- 5.9 Radial-Type Development
- 5.10 Radial Feeders with Uniformly Distributed Load
- 5.11 Radial Feeders with Nonuniformly Distributed Load
- 5.12 Application of the A, B, C, D General Circuit Constants to Radial Feeders
- 5.13 Design of Radial Primary Distribution Systems
- 5.14 Primary System Costs
- Problems
- References
- Figure 5.1
- Figure 5.1
- Figure 5.2
- Figure 5.3
- Figure 5.4
- Figure 5.5
- Figure 5.6
- Figure 5.7
- Figure 5.8
- Figure 5.9
- Figure 5.10
- Figure 5.11
- Figure 5.12
- Figure 5.13
- Figure 5.14
- Figure 5.15
- Figure 5.16
- Figure 5.17
- Figure 5.18
- Figure 5.19
- Figure 5.20
- Figure 5.21
- Figure 5.22
- Figure 5.23
- Figure 5.24
- Figure 5.25
- Figure 5.26
- Figure 5.27
- Figure 5.28
- Figure 5.29
- Figure 5.30
- Figure 5.31
- Figure 5.32
- Figure 5.33
- Figure 5.34
- Figure 5.35
- Figure 5.36
- Figure 5.37
- Table 5.1
- Chapter 6 Design Considerations of Secondary Systems
- 6.1 Introduction
- 6.2 Secondary Voltage Levels
- 6.3 Present Design Practice
- 6.4 Secondary Banking
- 6.5 Secondary Networks
- 6.6 Spot Networks
- 6.7 Economic Design of Secondaries
- 6.7.1 Patterns and Some of the Variables
- 6.7.2 Further Assumptions
- 6.7.3 General TAC Equation
- 6.7.4 Illustrating the Assembly of Cost Data
- 6.7.5 Illustrating the Estimation of Circuit Loading
- 6.7.6 Developed Total Annual Cost Equation
- 6.7.7 Minimization of the Total Annual Costs
- 6.7.8 Other Constraints
- 6.8 Unbalanced Load and Voltages
- 6.9 Secondary System Costs
- Problems
- References
- Figure 6.1
- Table 6.1
- Chapter 7 Voltage-Drop and Power-Loss Calculations
- Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Distribution Systems
- 8.1 Basic Definitions
- 8.2 Power Capacitors
- 8.3 Effects of Series and Shunt Capacitors
- 8.4 Power Factor Correction
- 8.4.1 General
- 8.4.2 Concept of Leading and Lagging Power Factors
- 8.4.3 Economic Power Factor
- 8.4.4 Use of a Power Factor Correction Table
- 8.4.5 Alternating Cycles of a Magnetic Field
- 8.4.6 Power Factor of a Group of Loads
- 8.4.7 Practical Methods Used by the Power Industry for Power Factor Improvement Calculations
- 8.4.8 Real Power-Limited Equipment
- 8.4.9 Computerized Method to Determine the Economic Power Factor
- 8.5 Application of Capacitors
- 8.6 Economic Justification for Capacitors
- 8.6.1 Benefits due to Released Generation Capacity
- 8.6.2 Benefits due to Released Transmission Capacity
- 8.6.3 Benefits due to Released Distribution Substation Capacity
- 8.6.4 Benefits due to Reduced Energy Losses
- 8.6.5 Benefits due to Reduced Voltage Drops
- 8.6.6 Benefits due to Released Feeder Capacity
- 8.6.7 Financial Benefits due to Voltage Improvement
- 8.6.8 Total Financial Benefits due to Capacitor Installations
- 8.7 Practical Procedure to Determine the Best Capacitor Location
- 8.8 Mathematical Procedure to Determine the Optimum Capacitor Allocation
- 8.9 Further Thoughts on Capacitors and Improving Power Factors
- 8.10 Capacitor Tank–Rupture Considerations
- 8.11 Dynamic Behavior of Distribution Systems
- Problems
- References
- Figure 8.1
- Figure 8.1
- Figure 8.2
- Figure 8.3
- Figure 8.4
- Figure 8.5
- Figure 8.6
- Figure 8.7
- Figure 8.8
- Figure 8.9
- Figure 8.10
- Figure 8.11
- Figure 8.12
- Figure 8.13
- Figure 8.14
- Figure 8.15
- Figure 8.16
- Figure 8.17
- Figure 8.18
- Figure 8.19
- Figure 8.20
- Figure 8.21
- Figure 8.22
- Figure 8.23
- Figure 8.24
- Figure 8.25
- Figure 8.26
- Figure 8.27
- Figure 8.28
- Figure 8.29
- Figure 8.30
- Figure 8.31
- Figure 8.32
- Figure 8.33
- Figure 8.34
- Figure 8.35
- Figure 8.36
- Figure 8.37
- Figure 8.38
- Figure 8.39
- Figure 8.40
- Figure 8.41
- Figure 8.42
- Figure 8.43
- Figure 8.44
- Figure 8.45
- Figure 8.46
- Figure 8.47
- Figure 8.48
- Figure 8.49
- Figure 8.50
- Figure 8.51
- Figure 8.52
- Table 8.1
- Chapter 9 Distribution System Voltage Regulation
- Chapter 10 Distribution System Protection
- 10.1 Basic Definitions
- 10.2 Overcurrent Protection Devices
- 10.3 Objective of Distribution System Protection
- 10.4 Coordination of Protective Devices
- 10.5 Fuse-to-Fuse Coordination
- 10.6 Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination
- 10.7 Recloser-to-Fuse Coordination
- 10.8 Recloser-to-Substation Transformer High-Side Fuse Coordination
- 10.9 Fuse-to-Circuit-Breaker Coordination
- 10.10 Recloser-to-Circuit-Breaker Coordination
- 10.11 Fault-Current Calculations
- 10.12 Fault-Current Calculations in Per Units
- 10.13 Secondary-System Fault-Current Calculations
- 10.13.1 Single-Phase 120/240 V Three-Wire Secondary Service
- 10.13.2 Three-Phase 240/120 or 480/240 V Wye–Delta or Delta–Delta Four-Wire Secondary Service
- 10.13.3 Three-Phase 240/120 or 480/240 V Open-Wye Primary and Four-Wire Open-Delta Secondary Service
- 10.13.4 Three-Phase 208Y/120 V, 480Y/277 V, or 832Y/480 V Four-Wire Wye–Wye Secondary Service
- 10.14 High-Impedance Faults
- 10.15 Lightning Protection
- 10.16 Insulators
- Problems
- References
- Figure 10.1
- Figure 10.1
- Figure 10.2
- Figure 10.3
- Figure 10.4
- Figure 10.5
- Figure 10.6
- Figure 10.7
- Figure 10.8
- Figure 10.9
- Figure 10.10
- Figure 10.11
- Figure 10.12
- Figure 10.13
- Figure 10.14
- Figure 10.15
- Figure 10.16
- Figure 10.17
- Figure 10.18
- Figure 10.19
- Figure 10.20
- Figure 10.21
- Figure 10.22
- Figure 10.23
- Figure 10.24
- Figure 10.25
- Figure 10.26
- Figure 10.27
- Figure 10.28
- Figure 10.29
- Figure 10.30
- Figure 10.31
- Figure 10.32
- Figure 10.33
- Figure 10.34
- Figure 10.35
- Figure 10.36
- Figure 10.37
- Figure 10.38
- Figure 10.39
- Figure 10.40
- Figure 10.41
- Figure P10.1
- Table 10.1
- Chapter 11 Distribution System Reliability
- 11.1 Basic Definitions
- 11.2 National Electric Reliability Council
- 11.3 Appropriate Levels of Distribution Reliability
- 11.4 Basic Reliability Concepts and Mathematics
- 11.5 Series Systems
- 11.6 Parallel Systems
- 11.7 Series and Parallel Combinations
- 11.8 Markov Processes
- 11.9 Development of the State-Transition Model to Determine the Steady-State Probabilities
- 11.10 Distribution Reliability Indices
- 11.11 Sustained Interruption Indices
- 11.12 Other Indices (Momentary)
- 11.13 Load- and Energy-Based Indices
- 11.14 Usage of Reliability Indices
- 11.15 Benefits of Reliability Modeling in System Performance
- 11.16 Economics of Reliability Assessment
- Problems
- References
- Figure 11.1
- Figure 11.1
- Figure 11.2
- Figure 11.3
- Figure 11.4
- Figure 11.5
- Figure 11.6
- Figure 11.7
- Figure 11.8
- Figure 11.9
- Figure 11.10
- Figure 11.11
- Figure 11.12
- Figure 11.13
- Figure 11.14
- Figure 11.15
- Figure 11.16
- Figure 11.17
- Figure 11.18
- Figure 11.19
- Figure 11.20
- Figure 11.21
- Figure 11.22
- Figure 11.23
- Figure 11.24
- Figure P11.12
- Figure P11.13
- Figure P11.14
- Table 11.1
- Chapter 12 Electric Power Quality
- 12.1 Basic Definitions
- 12.2 Definition of Electric Power Quality
- 12.3 Classification of Power Quality
- 12.4 Types of Disturbances
- 12.5 Measurements of Electric Power Quality
- 12.6 Power in Passive Elements
- 12.7 Harmonic Distortion Limits
- 12.8 Effects of Harmonics
- 12.9 Sources of Harmonics
- 12.10 Derating Transformers
- 12.11 Neutral Conductor Overloading
- 12.12 Capacitor Banks and Power Factor Correction
- 12.13 Short-Circuit Capacity or MVA
- 12.14 System Response Characteristics
- 12.15 Bus Voltage Rise and Resonance
- 12.16 Harmonic Amplification
- 12.17 Resonance
- 12.18 Harmonic Control Solutions
- 12.19 Harmonic Filter Design
- 12.20 Load Modeling in the Presence of Harmonics
- Problems
- References
- Figure 12.1
- Table 12.1
- Chapter 13 Distributed Generation and Renewable Energy
- 13.1 Introduction
- 13.2 Renewable Energy
- 13.3 Impact of Dispersed Storage and Generation
- 13.4 Integrating Renewables into Power Systems
- 13.5 Distributed Generation
- 13.6 Renewable Energy Penetration
- 13.7 Active Distribution Network
- 13.8 Concept of Microgrid
- 13.9 Wind Energy and Wind Energy Conversion System
- 13.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Energy Conversion Systems
- 13.9.2 Advantages of a Wind Energy Conversion System
- 13.9.3 Disadvantages of a Wind Energy Conversion System
- 13.9.4 Categories of Wind Turbines
- 13.9.5 Types of Generators Used in Wind Turbines
- 13.9.6 Wind Turbine Operating Systems
- 13.9.7 Meteorology of Wind
- 13.9.8 Effects of a Wind Force
- 13.9.9 Impact of Tower Height on Wind Power
- 13.9.10 Wind Measurements
- 13.9.11 Characteristics of a Wind Generator
- 13.9.12 Efficiency and Performance
- 13.9.13 Efficiency of a Wind Turbine
- 13.9.14 Grid Connection
- 13.9.15 Some Further Issues Related to Wind Energy
- 13.9.16 Development of Transmission System for Wind Energy in the United States
- 13.9.17 Energy Storage
- 13.9.18 Wind Power Forecasting
- 13.10 Solar Energy
- 13.10.1 Solar Energy Systems
- 13.10.2 Crystalline Silicon
- 13.10.3 Effect of Sunlight on Solar Cell’s Performance
- 13.10.4 Effects of Changing Strength of the Sun on a Solar Cell
- 13.10.5 Temperature’s Effect on Cell Characteristics
- 13.10.6 Efficiency of Solar Cells
- 13.10.7 Interconnection of Solar Cells
- 13.10.8 Overall System Configuration
- 13.10.9 Thin-Film PV
- 13.10.10 Concentrating PV
- 13.10.11 PV Balance of Systems
- 13.10.12 Types of Conversion Technologies
- 13.10.13 Linear CSP Systems
- 13.10.14 Power Tower CSP Systems
- 13.10.15 Dish/Engine CSP Systems
- 13.10.16 PV Applications
- Problems
- References
- General References
- Figure 13.1
- Figure 13.1
- Figure 13.2
- Figure 13.3
- Figure 13.4
- Figure 13.5
- Figure 13.6
- Figure 13.7
- Figure 13.8
- Figure 13.9
- Figure 13.10
- Figure 13.11
- Figure 13.12
- Figure 13.13
- Figure 13.14
- Figure 13.15
- Figure 13.16
- Figure 13.17
- Figure 13.18
- Figure 13.19
- Figure 13.20
- Figure 13.21
- Figure 13.22
- Figure 13.23
- Figure 13.24
- Figure 13.25
- Figure 13.26
- Figure 13.27
- Figure 13.28
- Figure 13.29
- Figure 13.30
- Figure 13.31
- Figure 13.32
- Figure 13.33
- Figure 13.34
- Table 13.1
- Chapter 14 Energy Storage Systems for Electric Power Utility Systems
- 14.1 Introduction
- 14.2 Storage Systems
- 14.3 Storage Devices
- 14.4 Battery Types
- 14.5 Operational Problems in Battery Usage
- 14.6 Fuel Cells
- References
- Figure 14.1
- Table 14.1
- Chapter 15 Concept of Smart Grid and Its Applications
- 15.1 Basic Definitions
- 15.2 Introduction
- 15.3 Need for Establishment of Smart Grid
- 15.4 Smart Grid Applications versus Business Objectives
- 15.5 Roots of the Motivation for the Smart Grid
- 15.6 Distribution Automation
- 15.7 Active Distribution Networks
- 15.8 Integration of Smart Grid with the Distribution Management System
- 15.9 Volt/VAR Control in Distribution Networks
- 15.10 Existing Electric Power Grid
- 15.11 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
- 15.12 Advanced SCADA Concepts
- 15.13 Advanced Developments for Integrated Substation Automation
- 15.14 Evolution of Smart Grid
- 15.15 Smart Microgrids
- 15.16 Topology of a Microgrid
- 15.17 Future of a Smart Grid
- 15.18 Standards of Smart Grids
- 15.19 Asset Management
- 15.20 Existing Challenges to the Application of the Concept of Smart Grids
- 15.21 Evolution of Smart Grid
- References
- Figure 15.1
- Figure 15.1
- Figure 15.2
- Figure 15.3
- Figure 15.4
- Figure 15.5
- Figure 15.6
- Figure 15.7
- Figure 15.8
- Figure 15.9
- Figure 15.10
- Figure 15.11
- Figure 15.12
- Figure 15.13
- Figure 15.14
- Figure 15.15
- Figure 15.16
- Figure 15.17
- Figure 15.18
- Figure 15.19
- Figure 15.20
- Figure 15.21
- Figure 15.22
- Figure 15.23
- Figure 15.24
- Figure 15.25
- Figure 15.26
- Figure 15.27
- Figure 15.28
- Figure 15.29
- Figure 15.30
- Figure 15.31
- Figure 15.32
- Figure 15.33
- Figure 15.34
- Figure 15.35
- Figure 15.36
- Figure 15.37
- Figure 15.38
- Figure 15.39
- Figure 15.40
- Table 15.1
- Appendix A: Impedance Tables for Lines, Transformers, and Underground Cables
- Appendix B: Graphic Symbols Used in Distribution System Design
- Appendix C: Standard Device Numbers Used in Protection Systems
- Appendix D: The Per-Unit System
- Appendix E: Glossary for Distribution System Terminology
- Notation
- Answers to Selected Problems
Acknowledgments
This book could not have been written without the unique contribution of Dr. David D. Robb, of D. D. Robb and Associates, in terms of numerous problems and his kind encouragement and friendship over the years. I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Paul M. Anderson of Power Math Associates and Arizona State University for his continuous encouragement and suggestions.
I am very grateful to numerous colleagues, particularly Dr. John Thompson, who provided moral support for this project, and Dr. James Hilliard of Iowa State University; Dr. James R. Tudor of the University of Missouri at Columbia; Dr. Earl M. Council of Louisiana Tech University; Dr. Don O. Koval of the University of Alberta; Late Dr. Olle I. Elgerd of the University of Florida; and Dr. James Story of Florida International University for their interest, encouragement, and invaluable suggestions.
A special thank you is extended to John Freed, chief distribution engineer of the Oklahoma Gas & Electric Company; C. J. Baldwin, Advanced Systems Technology, Westinghouse Electric Corporation; W. O. Carlson, S&C Electric Company; L. D. Simpson, Siemens-Allis, Inc.; E. J. Moreau, Balteau Standard, Inc.; and T. Lopp, General Electric Company, for their kind help and encouragement.
I would also like to express my thanks for the many useful comments and suggestions provided by colleagues who reviewed this text during the course of its development, especially to John. J. Grainger, North Carolina State University; James P. Hilliard, Iowa State University; Syed Nasar, University of Kentucky; John Pavlat, Iowa State University; Lee Rosenthal, Fairleigh Dickinson University; Peter Sauer, University of Illinois; and R. L. Sullivan, University of Florida.
A special thank you is also extended to my students Margaret Sheridan, for her contribution to the MATLAB work, and Joel Irvine for his kind help with the production of this book.
Finally, my deepest appreciation to my wife, Joan Gönen, for her limitless patience and understanding.
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