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Electric Power Distribution Engineering: Third Edition
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Electric Power Distribution Engineering: Third Edition
by CRC Press
Electric Power Distribution Engineering, 3rd Edition
Preliminaries
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
Author
Chapter 1 Distribution System Planning and Automation
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Distribution System Planning
1.3 Factors Affecting System Planning
1.3.1 Load Forecasting
1.3.2 Substation Expansion
1.3.3 Substation Site Selection
1.3.4 Other Factors
1.4 Present Distribution System Planning Techniques
1.5 Distribution System Planning Models
1.5.1 Computer Applications
1.5.2 New Expansion Planning
1.5.3 Augmentation and Upgrades
1.5.4 Operational Planning
1.5.5 Benefits of Optimization Applications
1.6 Distribution System Planning in the Future
1.6.1 Economic Factors
1.6.2 Demographic Factors
1.6.3 Technological Factors
1.7 Future Nature of Distribution Planning
1.7.1 Increasing Importance of Good Planning
1.7.2 Impacts of Load Management (or Demand-Side Management)
1.7.3 Cost/Benefit Ratio for Innovation
1.7.4 New Planning Tools
1.8 Central Role of the Computer in Distribution Planning
1.8.1 System Approach
1.8.2 Database Concept
1.8.3 New Automated Tools
1.9 Impact of Dispersed Storage and Generation
1.10 Distribution System Automation
1.10.1 Distribution Automation and Control Functions
1.10.2 Level of Penetration of Distribution Automation
1.10.3 Alternatives of Communication Systems
1.11 Summary and Conclusions
References
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.1
Figure 1.2
Figure 1.3
Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5
Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8
Figure 1.9
Figure 1.10
Figure 1.11
Figure 1.12
Figure 1.13
Figure 1.14
Figure 1.15
Figure 1.16
Figure 1.17
Table 1.1
Table 1.1
Table 1.2
Table 1.3
Table 1.4
Table 1.5
Table 1.6
Chapter 2 Load Characteristics
2.1 Basic Definitions
2.2 Relationship between the Load and Loss Factors
2.3 Maximum Diversified Demand
2.4 Load Forecasting
2.4.1 Box–Jenkins Methodology
2.4.2 Small-Area Load Forecasting
2.4.3 Spatial Load Forecasting
2.5 Load Management
2.6 Rate Structure
2.6.1 Customer Billing
2.6.2 Fuel Cost Adjustment
2.7 Electric Meter Types
2.7.1 Electronic (or Digital) Meters
2.7.2 Reading Electric Meters
2.7.3 Instantaneous Load Measurements Using Electromechanical Watthour Meters
Problems
References
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.16
Figure 2.17
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
Figure 2.20
Figure 2.21
Figure 2.22
Figure 2.23
Figure 2.24
Figure 2.25
Table 2.1
Table 2.1
Table 2.2
Table 2.3
Table 2.4
Table 2.5
Table P.2.1
Chapter 3 Application of Distribution Transformers
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Types of Distribution Transformers
3.3 Regulation
3.4 Transformer Efficiency
3.5 Terminal or Lead Markings
3.6 Transformer Polarity
3.7 Distribution Transformer Loading Guides
3.8 Equivalent Circuits of a Transformer
3.9 Single-Phase Transformer Connections
3.9.1 General
3.9.2 Single-Phase Transformer Paralleling
3.10 Three-Phase Connections
3.10.1 Δ–Δ Transformer Connection
3.10.2 Open-Δ Open-Δ Transformer Connection
3.10.3 Y–Y Transformer Connection
3.10.4 Y–Δ Transformer Connection
3.10.5 Open-Y Open-Δ Transformer Connection
3.10.6 Δ–Y Transformer Connection
3.11 Three-Phase Transformers
3.12 T or Scott Connection
3.13 Autotransformer
3.14 Booster Transformers
3.15 Amorphous Metal Distribution Transformers
3.16 Nature of Zero-Sequence Currents
3.17 Zigzag Power Transformers
3.18 Grounding Transformers Used in the Utility Systems
3.19 Protection Scheme of a Distribution Feeder Circuit
Problems
References
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15
Figure 3.16
Figure 3.17
Figure 3.18
Figure 3.19
Figure 3.20
Figure 3.21
Figure 3.22
Figure 3.23
Figure 3.24
Figure 3.25
Figure 3.26
Figure 3.27
Figure 3.28
Figure 3.29
Figure 3.30
Figure 3.31
Figure 3.32
Figure 3.33
Figure 3.34
Figure 3.35
Figure 3.36
Figure 3.37
Figure 3.38
Figure 3.39
Figure 3.40
Figure 3.41
Figure 3.42
Figure 3.43
Figure 3.44
Figure 3.45
Figure 3.46
Figure 3.47
Figure 3.48
Figure 3.49
Figure 3.50
Figure 3.51
Figure 3.52
Figure 3.53
Figure 3.54
Figure 3.55
Figure 3.56
Figure 3.57
Figure 3.58
Figure 3.59
Figure 3.60
Figure 3.61
Figure 3.62
Figure 3.63
Figure 3.64
Figure 3.65
Figure 3.66
Figure 3.67
Figure 3.68
Figure 3.69
Figure 3.70
Figure 3.71
Figure 3.72
Figure 3.73
Figure 3.74
Figure 3.75
Figure 3.76
Figure 3.77
Figure 3.78
Figure 3.79
Figure 3.80
Figure 3.81
Figure 3.82
Figure 3.83
Figure 3.84
Figure 3.85
Figure 3.86
Figure 3.87
Figure 3.88
Figure P3.1
Figure P3.3
Figure P3.6
Figure P3.7
Figure P3.8
Table 3.1
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Table 3.6
Chapter 4 Design of Subtransmission Lines and Distribution Substations
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Subtransmission
4.2.1 Subtransmission Line Costs
4.3 Distribution Substations
4.3.1 Substation Costs
4.4 Substation Bus Schemes
4.5 Substation Location
4.6 Rating of a Distribution Substation
4.7 General Case: Substation Service Area with n Primary Feeders
4.8 Comparison of the Four- and Six-Feeder Patterns
4.9 Derivation of the K Constant
4.10 Substation Application Curves
4.11 Interpretation of Percent Voltage Drop Formula
4.12 Capability of Facilities
4.13 Substation Grounding
4.13.1 Electric Shock and Its Effects on Humans
4.13.2 Ground Resistance
4.13.3 Reduction of Factor Cs
4.13.4 Soil Resistivity Measurements
4.13.4.1 Wenner Four-Pin Method
4.13.4.2 Three-Pin or Driven Ground Rod Method
4.14 Substation Grounding
4.15 Ground Conductor Sizing Factors
4.16 Mesh Voltage Design Calculations
4.17 Step Voltage Design Calculations
4.18 Types of Ground Faults
4.18.1 Line-to-Line-to-Ground Fault
4.18.2 Single Line-to-Ground Fault
4.19 Ground Potential Rise
4.20 Transmission Line Grounds
4.21 Types of Grounding
4.22 Transformer Classifications
Problems
References
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
Figure 4.13
Figure 4.14
Figure 4.15
Figure 4.16
Figure 4.17
Figure 4.18
Figure 4.19
Figure 4.20
Figure 4.21
Figure 4.22
Figure 4.23
Figure 4.24
Figure 4.25
Figure 4.26
Figure 4.27
Figure 4.28
Figure 4.29
Figure 4.30
Figure 4.31
Figure 4.32
Figure 4.33
Figure 4.34
Figure 4.35
Figure 4.36
Figure 4.37
Figure 4.38
Figure 4.39
Figure 4.40
Figure 4.41
Figure 4.42
Figure 4.43
Figure 4.44
Figure 4.45
Figure 4.46
Figure 4.47
Figure 4.48
Figure 4.49
Figure 4.50
Figure 4.51
Figure 4.52
Figure 4.53
Figure 4.54
Figure 4.55
Figure 4.56
Figure 4.57
Figure 4.58
Figure 4.59
Figure 4.60
Table 4.1
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
Table 4.6
Table 4.7
Table 4.8
Table 4.9
Table 4.10
Table 4.11
Table 4.12
Table 4.13
Chapter 5 Design Considerations of Primary Systems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Radial-Type Primary Feeder
5.3 Loop-Type Primary Feeder
5.4 Primary Network
5.5 Primary-Feeder Voltage Levels
5.6 Primary-Feeder Loading
5.7 Tie Lines
5.8 Distribution Feeder Exit: Rectangular-Type Development
5.9 Radial-Type Development
5.10 Radial Feeders with Uniformly Distributed Load
5.11 Radial Feeders with Nonuniformly Distributed Load
5.12 Application of the A, B, C, D General Circuit Constants to Radial Feeders
5.13 Design of Radial Primary Distribution Systems
5.13.1 Overhead Primaries
5.13.2 Underground Residential Distribution
5.14 Primary System Costs
Problems
References
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.10
Figure 5.11
Figure 5.12
Figure 5.13
Figure 5.14
Figure 5.15
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.17
Figure 5.18
Figure 5.19
Figure 5.20
Figure 5.21
Figure 5.22
Figure 5.23
Figure 5.24
Figure 5.25
Figure 5.26
Figure 5.27
Figure 5.28
Figure 5.29
Figure 5.30
Figure 5.31
Figure 5.32
Figure 5.33
Figure 5.34
Figure 5.35
Figure 5.36
Figure 5.37
Table 5.1
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.3
Chapter 6 Design Considerations of Secondary Systems
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Secondary Voltage Levels
6.3 Present Design Practice
6.4 Secondary Banking
6.5 Secondary Networks
6.5.1 Secondary Mains
6.5.2 Limiters
6.5.3 Network Protectors
6.5.4 High-Voltage Switch
6.5.5 Network Transformers
6.5.6 Transformer Application Factor
6.6 Spot Networks
6.7 Economic Design of Secondaries
6.7.1 Patterns and Some of the Variables
6.7.2 Further Assumptions
6.7.3 General TAC Equation
6.7.4 Illustrating the Assembly of Cost Data
6.7.5 Illustrating the Estimation of Circuit Loading
6.7.6 Developed Total Annual Cost Equation
6.7.7 Minimization of the Total Annual Costs
6.7.8 Other Constraints
6.8 Unbalanced Load and Voltages
6.9 Secondary System Costs
Problems
References
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.1
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.6
Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
Figure 6.9
Figure 6.10
Figure 6.11
Figure 6.12
Figure 6.13
Figure 6.14
Figure 6.15
Figure 6.16
Figure 6.17
Table 6.1
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Table 6.3
Table 6.4
Table 6.5
Chapter 7 Voltage-Drop and Power-Loss Calculations
7.1 Three-Phase Balanced Primary Lines
7.2 Non-three-phase Primary Lines
7.2.1 Single-Phase Two-Wire Laterals with Ungrounded Neutral
7.2.2 Single-Phase Two-Wire Ungrounded Laterals
7.2.3 Single-Phase Two-Wire Laterals with Multigrounded Common Neutrals
7.2.4 Two-Phase Plus Neutral (Open-Wye) Laterals
7.3 Four-Wire Multigrounded Common Neutral Distribution System
7.4 Percent Power (or Copper) Loss
7.5 Method to Analyze Distribution Costs
7.5.1 Annual Equivalent of Investment Cost
7.5.2 Annual Equivalent of Energy Cost
7.5.3 Annual Equivalent of Demand Cost
7.5.4 Levelized Annual Cost
7.6 Economic Analysis of Equipment Losses
Problems
References
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.1
Figure 7.2
Figure 7.3
Figure 7.4
Figure 7.5
Figure 7.6
Figure 7.7
Figure 7.8
Figure 7.9
Figure 7.10
Figure 7.11
Figure 7.12
Figure 7.13
Figure 7.14
Figure 7.15
Figure 7.16
Figure 7.17
Figure 7.18
Figure P7.1
Figure P7.7
Figure P7.11
Table 7.1
Table 7.1
Table 7.2
Table 7.3
Table 7.4
Table 7.5
Table 7.6
Table 7.7
Chapter 8 Application of Capacitors to Distribution Systems
8.1 Basic Definitions
8.2 Power Capacitors
8.3 Effects of Series and Shunt Capacitors
8.3.1 Series Capacitors
8.3.1.1 Overcompensation
8.3.1.2 Leading Power Factor
8.3.2 Shunt Capacitors
8.4 Power Factor Correction
8.4.1 General
8.4.2 Concept of Leading and Lagging Power Factors
8.4.3 Economic Power Factor
8.4.4 Use of a Power Factor Correction Table
8.4.5 Alternating Cycles of a Magnetic Field
8.4.6 Power Factor of a Group of Loads
8.4.7 Practical Methods Used by the Power Industry for Power Factor Improvement Calculations
8.4.8 Real Power-Limited Equipment
8.4.9 Computerized Method to Determine the Economic Power Factor
8.5 Application of Capacitors
8.5.1 Capacitor Installation Types
8.5.2 Types of Controls for Switched Shunt Capacitors
8.5.3 Types of Three-Phase Capacitor-Bank Connections
8.6 Economic Justification for Capacitors
8.6.1 Benefits due to Released Generation Capacity
8.6.2 Benefits due to Released Transmission Capacity
8.6.3 Benefits due to Released Distribution Substation Capacity
8.6.4 Benefits due to Reduced Energy Losses
8.6.5 Benefits due to Reduced Voltage Drops
8.6.6 Benefits due to Released Feeder Capacity
8.6.7 Financial Benefits due to Voltage Improvement
8.6.8 Total Financial Benefits due to Capacitor Installations
8.7 Practical Procedure to Determine the Best Capacitor Location
8.8 Mathematical Procedure to Determine the Optimum Capacitor Allocation
8.8.1 Loss Reduction due to Capacitor Allocation
8.8.1.1 Case 1: One Capacitor Bank
8.8.1.2 Case 2: Two Capacitor Banks
8.8.1.3 Case 3: Three Capacitor Banks
8.8.1.4 Case 4: Four Capacitor Banks
8.8.1.5 Case 5: n Capacitor Banks
8.8.2 Optimum Location of a Capacitor Bank
8.8.3 Energy Loss Reduction due to Capacitors
8.8.4 Relative Ratings of Multiple Fixed Capacitors
8.8.5 General Savings Equation for Any Number of Fixed Capacitors
8.9 Further Thoughts on Capacitors and Improving Power Factors
8.10 Capacitor Tank–Rupture Considerations
8.11 Dynamic Behavior of Distribution Systems
8.11.1 Ferroresonance
8.11.2 Harmonics on Distribution Systems
Problems
References
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.1
Figure 8.2
Figure 8.3
Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
Figure 8.6
Figure 8.7
Figure 8.8
Figure 8.9
Figure 8.10
Figure 8.11
Figure 8.12
Figure 8.13
Figure 8.14
Figure 8.15
Figure 8.16
Figure 8.17
Figure 8.18
Figure 8.19
Figure 8.20
Figure 8.21
Figure 8.22
Figure 8.23
Figure 8.24
Figure 8.25
Figure 8.26
Figure 8.27
Figure 8.28
Figure 8.29
Figure 8.30
Figure 8.31
Figure 8.32
Figure 8.33
Figure 8.34
Figure 8.35
Figure 8.36
Figure 8.37
Figure 8.38
Figure 8.39
Figure 8.40
Figure 8.41
Figure 8.42
Figure 8.43
Figure 8.44
Figure 8.45
Figure 8.46
Figure 8.47
Figure 8.48
Figure 8.49
Figure 8.50
Figure 8.51
Figure 8.52
Table 8.1
Table 8.1
Table 8.2
Table 8.3
Table 8.4
Table 8.5
Table 8.6
Table P8.5
Chapter 9 Distribution System Voltage Regulation
9.1 Basic Definitions
9.2 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards
9.3 Voltage Control
9.4 Feeder Voltage Regulators
9.5 Line-Drop Compensation
9.6 Distribution Capacitor Automation
9.7 Voltage Fluctuations
9.7.1 Shortcut Method to Calculate the Voltage Dips due to a Single-Phase Motor Start
9.7.2 Shortcut Method to Calculate the Voltage Dips due to a Three-Phase Motor Start
Problems
References
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.1
Figure 9.2
Figure 9.3
Figure 9.4
Figure 9.5
Figure 9.6
Figure 9.7
Figure 9.8
Figure 9.9
Figure 9.10
Figure 9.11
Figure 9.12
Figure 9.13
Figure 9.14
Figure 9.15
Figure 9.16
Figure 9.17
Figure 9.18
Figure 9.19
Figure 9.20
Figure 9.21
Figure 9.22
Figure P9.10
Figure P9.12
Figure P9.13
Table 9.1
Table 9.1
Table 9.2
Table 9.3
Table 9.4
Table 9.5
Table 9.6
Table 9.7
Table P9.10
Chapter 10 Distribution System Protection
10.1 Basic Definitions
10.2 Overcurrent Protection Devices
10.2.1 Fuses
10.2.2 Automatic Circuit Reclosers
10.2.3 Automatic Line Sectionalizers
10.2.4 Automatic Circuit Breakers
10.3 Objective of Distribution System Protection
10.4 Coordination of Protective Devices
10.5 Fuse-to-Fuse Coordination
10.6 Recloser-to-Recloser Coordination
10.7 Recloser-to-Fuse Coordination
10.8 Recloser-to-Substation Transformer High-Side Fuse Coordination
10.9 Fuse-to-Circuit-Breaker Coordination
10.10 Recloser-to-Circuit-Breaker Coordination
10.11 Fault-Current Calculations
10.11.1 Three-Phase Faults
10.11.2 Line-to-Line Faults
10.11.3 Single Line-to-Ground Faults
10.11.4 Components of the Associated Impedance to the Fault
10.11.5 Sequence-Impedance Tables for the Application of Symmetrical Components
10.12 Fault-Current Calculations in Per Units
10.13 Secondary-System Fault-Current Calculations
10.13.1 Single-Phase 120/240 V Three-Wire Secondary Service
10.13.2 Three-Phase 240/120 or 480/240 V Wye–Delta or Delta–Delta Four-Wire Secondary Service
10.13.3 Three-Phase 240/120 or 480/240 V Open-Wye Primary and Four-Wire Open-Delta Secondary Service
10.13.4 Three-Phase 208Y/120 V, 480Y/277 V, or 832Y/480 V Four-Wire Wye–Wye Secondary Service
10.14 High-Impedance Faults
10.15 Lightning Protection
10.15.1 A Brief Review of Lightning Phenomenon
10.15.2 Lightning Surges
10.15.3 Lightning Protection
10.15.4 Basic Lightning Impulse Level
10.15.5 Determining the Expected Number of Strikes on a Line
10.16 Insulators
Problems
References
Figure 10.1
Figure 10.1
Figure 10.2
Figure 10.3
Figure 10.4
Figure 10.5
Figure 10.6
Figure 10.7
Figure 10.8
Figure 10.9
Figure 10.10
Figure 10.11
Figure 10.12
Figure 10.13
Figure 10.14
Figure 10.15
Figure 10.16
Figure 10.17
Figure 10.18
Figure 10.19
Figure 10.20
Figure 10.21
Figure 10.22
Figure 10.23
Figure 10.24
Figure 10.25
Figure 10.26
Figure 10.27
Figure 10.28
Figure 10.29
Figure 10.30
Figure 10.31
Figure 10.32
Figure 10.33
Figure 10.34
Figure 10.35
Figure 10.36
Figure 10.37
Figure 10.38
Figure 10.39
Figure 10.40
Figure 10.41
Figure P10.1
Table 10.1
Table 10.1
Table 10.2
Table 10.3
Table 10.4
Table 10.5
Table 10.6
Table 10.7
Table 10.8
Table 10.9
Table 10.10
Table 10.11
Table 10.12
Table 10.13
Table 10.14
Chapter 11 Distribution System Reliability
11.1 Basic Definitions
11.2 National Electric Reliability Council
11.3 Appropriate Levels of Distribution Reliability
11.4 Basic Reliability Concepts and Mathematics
11.4.1 General Reliability Function
11.4.2 Basic Single-Component Concepts
11.5 Series Systems
11.5.1 Unrepairable Components in Series
11.5.2 Repairable Components in Series
11.6 Parallel Systems
11.6.1 Unrepairable Components in Parallel
11.6.2 Repairable Components in Parallel
11.7 Series and Parallel Combinations
11.8 Markov Processes
11.8.1 Chapman–Kolmogorov Equations
11.8.2 Classification of States in Markov Chains
11.9 Development of the State-Transition Model to Determine the Steady-State Probabilities
11.10 Distribution Reliability Indices
11.11 Sustained Interruption Indices
11.11.1 SAIFI
11.11.2 SAIDI
11.11.3 CAIDI
11.11.4 CTAIDI
11.11.5 CAIFI
11.11.6 ASAI
11.11.7 ASIFI
11.11.8 ASIDI
11.11.9 CEMIn
11.12 Other Indices (Momentary)
11.12.1 MAIFI
11.12.2 MAIFIE
11.12.3 CEMSMIn
11.13 Load- and Energy-Based Indices
11.13.1 ENS
11.13.2 AENS
11.13.3 ACCI
11.14 Usage of Reliability Indices
11.15 Benefits of Reliability Modeling in System Performance
11.16 Economics of Reliability Assessment
Problems
References
Figure 11.1
Figure 11.1
Figure 11.2
Figure 11.3
Figure 11.4
Figure 11.5
Figure 11.6
Figure 11.7
Figure 11.8
Figure 11.9
Figure 11.10
Figure 11.11
Figure 11.12
Figure 11.13
Figure 11.14
Figure 11.15
Figure 11.16
Figure 11.17
Figure 11.18
Figure 11.19
Figure 11.20
Figure 11.21
Figure 11.22
Figure 11.23
Figure 11.24
Figure P11.12
Figure P11.13
Figure P11.14
Table 11.1
Table 11.1
Table 11.2
Table 11.3
Table 11.4
Table 11.5
Table 11.6
Table P11.29A
Table P11.29B
Table P11.30A
Table P11.30B
Table P11.30C
Chapter 12 Electric Power Quality
12.1 Basic Definitions
12.2 Definition of Electric Power Quality
12.3 Classification of Power Quality
12.4 Types of Disturbances
12.4.1 Harmonic Distortion
12.4.2 CBEMA and ITI Curves
12.5 Measurements of Electric Power Quality
12.5.1 RMS Voltage and Current
12.5.2 Distribution Factors
12.5.3 Active (Real) and Reactive Power
12.5.4 Apparent Power
12.5.5 Power Factor
12.5.6 Current and Voltage Crest Factors
12.5.7 Telephone Interference and the I · T Product
12.6 Power in Passive Elements
12.6.1 Power in a Pure Resistance
12.6.2 Power in a Pure Inductance
12.6.3 Power in a Pure Capacitance
12.7 Harmonic Distortion Limits
12.7.1 Voltage Distortion Limits
12.7.2 Current Distortion Limits
12.8 Effects of Harmonics
12.9 Sources of Harmonics
12.10 Derating Transformers
12.10.1 K-Factor
12.10.2 Transformer Derating
12.11 Neutral Conductor Overloading
12.12 Capacitor Banks and Power Factor Correction
12.13 Short-Circuit Capacity or MVA
12.14 System Response Characteristics
12.14.1 System Impedance
12.14.2 Capacitor Impedance
12.15 Bus Voltage Rise and Resonance
12.16 Harmonic Amplification
12.17 Resonance
12.17.1 Series Resonance
12.17.2 Parallel Resonance
12.17.3 Effects of Harmonics on the Resonance
12.17.4 Practical Examples of Resonance Circuits
12.18 Harmonic Control Solutions
12.18.1 Passive Filters
12.18.2 Active Filters
12.19 Harmonic Filter Design
12.19.1 Series-Tuned Filters
12.19.2 Second-Order Damped Filters
12.20 Load Modeling in the Presence of Harmonics
12.20.1 Impedance in the Presence of Harmonics
12.20.2 Skin Effect
12.20.3 Load Models
Problems
References
Figure 12.1
Figure 12.1
Figure 12.2
Figure 12.3
Figure 12.4
Figure 12.5
Figure 12.6
Figure 12.7
Figure 12.8
Figure 12.9
Figure 12.10
Figure 12.11
Figure 12.12
Figure 12.13
Figure 12.14
Figure 12.15
Figure 12.16
Table 12.1
Table 12.1
Table 12.2
Table 12.3
Table 12.4
Table 12.5
Table 12.6
Table 12.7
Table 12.8
Table 12.9
Table 12.10
Table 12.11
Table 12.12
Table P12.5
Chapter 13 Distributed Generation and Renewable Energy
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Renewable Energy
13.3 Impact of Dispersed Storage and Generation
13.4 Integrating Renewables into Power Systems
13.5 Distributed Generation
13.6 Renewable Energy Penetration
13.7 Active Distribution Network
13.8 Concept of Microgrid
13.9 Wind Energy and Wind Energy Conversion System
13.9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wind Energy Conversion Systems
13.9.2 Advantages of a Wind Energy Conversion System
13.9.3 Disadvantages of a Wind Energy Conversion System
13.9.4 Categories of Wind Turbines
13.9.5 Types of Generators Used in Wind Turbines
13.9.6 Wind Turbine Operating Systems
13.9.6.1 Constant-Speed Wind Turbines
13.9.6.2 Variable-Speed Wind Turbines
13.9.7 Meteorology of Wind
13.9.7.1 Power in the Wind
13.9.8 Effects of a Wind Force
13.9.9 Impact of Tower Height on Wind Power
13.9.10 Wind Measurements
13.9.11 Characteristics of a Wind Generator
13.9.12 Efficiency and Performance
13.9.13 Efficiency of a Wind Turbine
13.9.13.1 Generator Efficiency
13.9.13.2 Gearbox
13.9.13.3 Overall Efficiency
13.9.13.4 Other Factors to Define the Efficiency
13.9.14 Grid Connection
13.9.15 Some Further Issues Related to Wind Energy
13.9.16 Development of Transmission System for Wind Energy in the United States
13.9.17 Energy Storage
13.9.18 Wind Power Forecasting
13.10 Solar Energy
13.10.1 Solar Energy Systems
13.10.2 Crystalline Silicon
13.10.3 Effect of Sunlight on Solar Cell’s Performance
13.10.4 Effects of Changing Strength of the Sun on a Solar Cell
13.10.5 Temperature’s Effect on Cell Characteristics
13.10.6 Efficiency of Solar Cells
13.10.7 Interconnection of Solar Cells
13.10.8 Overall System Configuration
13.10.9 Thin-Film PV
13.10.10 Concentrating PV
13.10.11 PV Balance of Systems
13.10.12 Types of Conversion Technologies
13.10.13 Linear CSP Systems
13.10.14 Power Tower CSP Systems
13.10.15 Dish/Engine CSP Systems
13.10.16 PV Applications
13.10.16.1 Utility-Interactive PV Systems
13.10.16.2 Stand-Alone PV Systems
Problems
References
General References
Figure 13.1
Figure 13.1
Figure 13.2
Figure 13.3
Figure 13.4
Figure 13.5
Figure 13.6
Figure 13.7
Figure 13.8
Figure 13.9
Figure 13.10
Figure 13.11
Figure 13.12
Figure 13.13
Figure 13.14
Figure 13.15
Figure 13.16
Figure 13.17
Figure 13.18
Figure 13.19
Figure 13.20
Figure 13.21
Figure 13.22
Figure 13.23
Figure 13.24
Figure 13.25
Figure 13.26
Figure 13.27
Figure 13.28
Figure 13.29
Figure 13.30
Figure 13.31
Figure 13.32
Figure 13.33
Figure 13.34
Table 13.1
Table 13.1
Table 13.2
Table 13.3
Table 13.4
Table 13.5
Table 13.6
Table 13.7
Table P17.1
Chapter 14 Energy Storage Systems for Electric Power Utility Systems
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Storage Systems
14.3 Storage Devices
14.3.1 Large Hydro
14.3.2 Compressed Air Storage
14.3.3 Pumped Hydro
14.3.4 Hydrogen
14.3.5 High-Power Flywheels
14.3.6 High-Power Flow Batteries
14.3.7 High-Power Supercapacitors
14.3.8 Super Conducting Magnetic Energy Storage
14.3.9 Heat or Cold Storage
14.4 Battery Types
14.4.1 Secondary Batteries
14.4.2 Sodium–Sulfur Batteries
14.4.3 Flow Battery Technology
14.4.3.1 Zinc–Bromine Flow Battery
14.4.3.2 Vanadium Redox Flow Battery
14.4.4 Lithium-Ion Batteries
14.4.4.1 Lithium–Titanate Batteries
14.4.4.2 Lithium Ion Phosphate Batteries
14.4.5 Lead–Acid Batteries
14.4.5.1 Advanced Lead–Acid Batteries
14.4.6 Nickel–Cadmium Batteries
14.5 Operational Problems in Battery Usage
14.6 Fuel Cells
14.6.1 Types of Fuel Cells
14.6.1.1 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane
14.6.1.2 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
14.6.1.3 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
14.6.1.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
References
Figure 14.1
Figure 14.1
Figure 14.2
Figure 14.3
Figure 14.4
Figure 14.5
Table 14.1
Table 14.1
Chapter 15 Concept of Smart Grid and Its Applications
15.1 Basic Definitions
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Need for Establishment of Smart Grid
15.4 Smart Grid Applications versus Business Objectives
15.5 Roots of the Motivation for the Smart Grid
15.6 Distribution Automation
15.7 Active Distribution Networks
15.8 Integration of Smart Grid with the Distribution Management System
15.9 Volt/VAR Control in Distribution Networks
15.9.1 Traditional Approach to Volt/VAR Control in the Distribution Networks
15.9.2 SCADA Approach to Control Volt/VAR in the Distribution Networks
15.9.3 Integrated Volt/VAR Control Optimization
15.10 Existing Electric Power Grid
15.11 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
15.12 Advanced SCADA Concepts
15.12.1 Substation Controllers
15.13 Advanced Developments for Integrated Substation Automation
15.14 Evolution of Smart Grid
15.15 Smart Microgrids
15.16 Topology of a Microgrid
15.17 Future of a Smart Grid
15.18 Standards of Smart Grids
15.19 Asset Management
15.20 Existing Challenges to the Application of the Concept of Smart Grids
15.21 Evolution of Smart Grid
References
Figure 15.1
Figure 15.1
Figure 15.2
Figure 15.3
Figure 15.4
Figure 15.5
Figure 15.6
Figure 15.7
Figure 15.8
Figure 15.9
Figure 15.10
Figure 15.11
Figure 15.12
Figure 15.13
Figure 15.14
Figure 15.15
Figure 15.16
Figure 15.17
Figure 15.18
Figure 15.19
Figure 15.20
Figure 15.21
Figure 15.22
Figure 15.23
Figure 15.24
Figure 15.25
Figure 15.26
Figure 15.27
Figure 15.28
Figure 15.29
Figure 15.30
Figure 15.31
Figure 15.32
Figure 15.33
Figure 15.34
Figure 15.35
Figure 15.36
Figure 15.37
Figure 15.38
Figure 15.39
Figure 15.40
Table 15.1
Table 15.1
Table 15.2
Table 15.3
Appendix A: Impedance Tables for Lines, Transformers, and Underground Cables
References
Table A.1
Table A.1
Table A.2
Table A.3
Table A.4
Table A.5
Table A.6
Table A.7
Table A.8
Table A.9
Table A.10
Table A.11
Table A.12
Table A.13
Table A.14
Table A.15
Table A.16
Table A.17
Table A.18
Table A.19
Table A.20
Table A.21
Table A.22
Table A.23
Table A.24
Table A.25
Appendix B: Graphic Symbols Used in Distribution System Design
Table B.1
Table B.1
Appendix C: Standard Device Numbers Used in Protection Systems
Appendix D: The Per-Unit System
D.1 Introduction
D.2 Single-Phase System
D.3 Converting From Per-Unit Values to Physical Values
D.4 Change Of Base
D.5 Three-Phase Systems
D.6 Problems
Table D.1
Table D.1
Appendix E: Glossary for Distribution System Terminology
References
Notation
Capital English Letters
Lowercase English Letters
Capital Greek Letters
Lowercase Greek Letters
Subscripts
Answers to Selected Problems
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
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