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Part II: Aircraft Design
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Part II: Aircraft Design
by David Riordan, Mark A. Price, Ajoy Kumar Kundu
Conceptual Aircraft Design
Cover
Series Preface
Preface
Individual Acknowledgements By Ajoy Kumar Kundu
Teachers/Academic Supervisor/Instructors:
Heads of Establishments/Supervisors:
My Ex‐Students and Most of My Ex‐Colleagues (Both Shop‐Floor and Office)
Personal Observation:
By Mark A. Price
By David Riordan
List of Symbols and Abbreviations
Road Map of the Book
1 Objectives and Aims
2 The Arrangement
3 Suggested Route for Coursework
4 Project Assignment
5 Suggestions for the Class
References
Part I: Prerequisites
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 Brief Historical Background
1.3 Aircraft Evolution
1.4 Current Aircraft Design Trends for both Civil and Military Aircraft (the 1980s Onwards)
1.5 Future Trends
1.6 Forces and Drivers
1.7 Airworthiness Requirements
1.8 Current Aircraft Performance Analyses Levels
1.9 Aircraft Classification
1.10 Topics of Current Research Interest Related to Aircraft Design (Supersonic/Subsonic)
1.11 Cost Implications
1.12 The Classroom Learning Process
1.13 Units and Dimensions
1.14 Use of Semi‐Empirical Relations and Datasheets
1.15 The Atmosphere
References
2 Aircraft Familiarity, Aircraft Design Process, Market Study
2.1 Overview
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Aircraft Familiarisation
2.4 Typical Aircraft Design Process
2.5 Market Survey – Project Identification
2.6 Four Phases of Aircraft Design
2.7 Typical Task Breakdown in Each Phase
2.8 Aircraft Specifications for Three Civil Aircraft Case Studies
2.9 Military Market – Some Typical Military Aircraft Design Specifications
2.10 Airworthiness Requirements
2.11 Coursework Procedures – Market Survey
References
3 Aerodynamic Fundamentals, Definitions and Aerofoils
3.1 Overview
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Airflow Behaviour – Laminar and Turbulent
3.4 Flow Past an Aerofoil
3.5 Generation of Lift
3.6 Aircraft Motion, Forces and Moments
3.7 Definitions of Aerodynamic Parameters
3.8 Aerofoils
3.9 Reynolds Number and Surface Condition Effects on Aerofoils – Using NACA Aerofoil Test Data
3.10 Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre
3.11 Types of Stall
3.12 High‐Lift Devices
3.13 Flow Regimes
3.14 Summary
3.15 Aerofoil Design and Manufacture
3.16 Aircraft Centre of Gravity, Centre of Pressure and Neutral Point
References
4 Wings
4.1 Overview
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Generic Wing Planform Shapes
4.4 Wing Position Relative to Fuselage
4.5 Structural Considerations
4.6 Wing Parameter Definitions
4.7 Spanwise Variation of Aerofoil t/c and Incidence
4.8 Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
4.9 Wing Aerodynamics
4.10 Wing Load
4.11 Compressibility Effect: Wing Sweep
4.12 Transonic Wings
4.13 Supersonic Wings
4.14 Additional Vortex Lift – LE Suction
4.15 High‐Lift Devices on the Wing – Flaps and Slats
4.16 Additional Surfaces on the Wing
4.17 The Square‐Cube Law
4.18 Influence of Wing Area and Span on Aerodynamics
4.19 Summary of Wing Design
References
5 Bodies – Fuselages, Nacelle Pods, Intakes and the Associated Systems
5.1 Overview
5.2 Introduction
CIVIL AIRCRAFT
5.3 Fuselage Geometry – Civil Aircraft
5.4 Fuselage Closures – Civil Aircraft
5.5 Fuselage Fineness Ratio (FR)
5.6 Fuselage Cross‐Sectional Geometry – Civil Aircraft
5.7 Fuselage Abreast Seating – Civil Aircraft
5.8 Cabin Seat Layout
5.9 Fuselage Layout
5.10 Fuselage Aerodynamic Considerations
5.11 Fuselage Pitching Moment
5.12 Nacelle Pod – Civil Aircraft
5.13 Exhaust Nozzles – Civil Aircraft
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
5.14 Fuselage Geometry – Military Aircraft
5.15 Pilot Cockpit/Flight Deck – Military Aircraft
5.16 Engine Installation – Military Aircraft
References
6 Empennage and Other Planar Surfaces
6.1 Overview
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Terminologies and Definitions of Empennage
6.4 Empennage Mount and Types
6.5 Different Kinds of Empennage Design
6.6 Empennage Tail Arm
6.7 Empennage Aerodynamics
6.8 Aircraft Control System
6.9 Aircraft Control Surfaces and Trim Tabs
6.10 Empennage Design
6.11 Other Planar Surfaces
References
7 Aircraft Statistics, Configuration Choices and Layout
7.1 Overview
7.2 Introduction
CIVIL AIRCRAFT
7.3 Civil Aircraft Mission (Payload Range)
7.4 Civil Subsonic Jet Aircraft Statistics (Sizing Parameters)
7.5 Internal Arrangements of Fuselage – Civil Aircraft
7.6 Some Interesting Aircraft Configurations – Civil Aircraft
7.7 Summary of Civil Aircraft Design Choices
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
7.8 Military Aircraft: Detailed Classification, Evolutionary Pattern and Mission Profile
7.9 Military Aircraft Mission
7.10 Military Aircraft Statistics (Regression Analysis)
7.11 Military Aircraft Component Geometries
7.12 Miscellaneous Comments
7.13 Summary of Military Aircraft Design Choices
References
Part II: Aircraft Design
8 Configuring Aircraft – Concept Definition
8.1 Overview
8.2 Introduction
CIVIL AIRCRAFT
8.3 Prerequisites to Initiate Conceptual Design of Civil Aircraft
8.4 Fuselage Design
8.5 Wing Design
8.6 Empennage Design
8.7 Nacelle and Pylon Design
8.8 Undercarriage
8.9 Worked‐Out Example: Configuring a Bizjet Class Aircraft
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
8.10 Prerequisite to Initiate Military (Combat/Trainer) Aircraft Design
8.11 Fuselage Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.12 Wing Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.13 Empennage Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.14 Engine/Intake/Nozzle (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.15 Undercarriage (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.16 Worked‐Out Example – Configuring Military AJT Class Aircraft
8.17 Turboprop Trainer Aircraft (TPT)
References
9 Undercarriage
9.1 Overview
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Types of Undercarriage
9.4 Undercarriage Description
9.5 Undercarriage Nomenclature and Definitions
9.6 Undercarriage Retraction and Stowage
9.7 Undercarriage Design Drivers and Considerations
9.8 Tyre Friction with the Ground: Rolling and Braking Friction Coefficient
9.9 Load on Wheels and Shock Absorbers
9.10 Energy Absorbed
9.11 Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)
9.12 Runway Pavement
9.13 Airfield/Runway Strength and Aircraft Operating Compatibility
9.14 Wheels and Tyres
9.15 Tyre Nomenclature, Classification, Loading and Selection
9.16 Configuring Undercarriage Layout and Positioning
9.17 Worked‐Out Examples
9.18 Discussion and Miscellaneous Considerations
References
10 Aircraft Weight and Centre of Gravity Estimation
10.1 Overview
10.2 Introduction
10.3 The Weight Drivers
10.4 Aircraft Mass (Weight) Breakdown
10.5 Aircraft CG and Neutral Point Positions
10.6 Aircraft Component Groups
10.7 Aircraft Component Mass Estimation
10.8 Mass Fraction Method – Civil Aircraft
10.9 Graphical Method – Civil Aircraft
10.10 Semi‐Empirical Equation Method (Statistical)
10.11 Centre of Gravity Determination
10.12 Worked‐Out Example – Bizjet Aircraft
10.13 Mass Fraction Method – Military Aircraft
10.14 Graphical Method to Predict Aircraft Component Weight – Military Aircraft
10.15 Semi‐Empirical Equations Method (Statistical) – Military Aircraft
10.16 CG Determination – Military Aircraft
10.17 Classroom Example of Military AJT/CAS Aircraft Mass Estimation
10.18 AJT Mass Estimation and CG Location
10.19 Classroom Example of a Turboprop Trainer (TPT) Aircraft and COIN Variant Weight Estimation
10.20 Classroom Worked‐Out TPT Mass Estimation and CG Location
10.21 Summary of Concept Definition
References
11 Aircraft Drag
11.1 Overview
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Parasite Drag Definition
11.4 Aircraft Drag Breakdown (Subsonic)
11.5 Understanding Drag Polar
11.6 Aircraft Drag Formulation
11.7 Aircraft Drag Estimation Methodology (Subsonic)
11.8 Minimum Parasite Drag Estimation Methodology
11.9 Semi‐Empirical Relations to Estimate Aircraft‐Component Parasite Drag
11.10 Notes on Excrescence Drag Resulting from Surface Imperfections
11.11 Minimum Parasite Drag
11.12 ΔC Dp Estimation
11.13 Subsonic Wave Drag
11.14 Total Aircraft Drag
11.15 Low‐Speed Aircraft Drag at Takeoff and Landing
11.16 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft Drag
11.17 Military Aircraft Drag
11.18 Supersonic Drag
11.19 Coursework Example – Civil Bizjet Aircraft
11.20 Classroom Example – Subsonic Military Aircraft (Advanced Jet Trainer – AJT)
11.21 Classroom Example – Turboprop Trainer (TPT)
11.22 Classroom Example – Supersonic Military Aircraft
11.23 Drag Comparison
11.24 Some Concluding Remarks
References
12 Aircraft Power Plant and Integration
12.1 Overview
12.2 Background
12.3 Definitions
12.4 Introduction – Air‐Breathing Aircraft Engine Types
12.5 Simplified Representation of a Gas Turbine (Brayton/Joule) Cycle
12.6 Formulation/Theory – Isentropic Case (Trend Analysis)
12.7 Engine Integration to Aircraft – Installation Effects
12.8 Intake/Nozzle Design
12.9 Exhaust Nozzle and Thrust Reverser (TR)
12.10 Propeller
12.11 Propeller Theory
12.12 Propeller Performance – Use of Charts, Practical Engineering Applications
References
13 Aircraft Power Plant Performance
13.1 Overview
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data – Civil Aircraft
13.4 Installed Engine Performance Data of Matched Engines to Coursework Aircraft
13.5 Installed Turboprop Performance Data
13.6 Piston Engine
13.7 Engine Performance Grid
13.8 Some Turbofan Data (OPR = Overall Pressure Ratio)
References
14 Aircraft Sizing, Engine Matching and Variant Derivatives
14.1 Overview
14.2 Introduction
14.3 Theory
14.4 Coursework Exercise – Civil Aircraft Design (Bizjet)
14.5 Sizing Analysis – Civil Aircraft (Bizjet)
14.6 Coursework Exercise – Military Aircraft (AJT)
14.7 Sizing Analysis – Military Aircraft (AJT)
14.8 Aircraft Sizing Studies and Sensitivity Analyses
14.9 Discussion
References
15 Aircraft Performance
15.1 Overview
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Takeoff Performance
15.4 Landing Performance
15.5 Climb Performance
15.6 Descent Performance
15.7 Checking of the Initial Maximum Cruise Speed Capability
15.8 Payload‐Range Capability – Derivation of Range Equations
15.9 In Horizontal Plane (Yaw Plane) – Sustained Coordinated Turn
15.10 Aircraft Performance Substantiation – Worked‐Out Classroom Examples – Bizjet
15.11 Aircraft Performance Substantiation – Military AJT
15.12 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft – TPT (Parabolic Drag Polar)
15.13 Summarised Discussion of the Design
References
16 Aircraft Cost Considerations
16.1 Overview
16.2 Introduction
16.3 Aircraft Cost and Operational Cost
16.4 Rapid Cost Modelling
16.5 Aircraft Direct Operating Cost (DOC)
16.5.2 Aircraft Performance Management
References
Part III: Further Design Considerations
17 Aircraft Load
17.1 Overview
17.2 Introduction
17.3 Flight Manoeuvres
17.4 Aircraft Loads
17.5 Theory and Definitions
17.6 Limits – Load and Speeds
17.7 V‐n Diagram
17.8 Gust Envelope
References
18 Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft Design
18.1 Overview
18.2 Introduction
18.3 Static and Dynamic Stability
18.4 Theory
18.5 Current Statistical Trends for Horizontal and Vertical Tail Coefficients
18.6 Stick Force – Aircraft Control Surfaces and Trim Tabs
18.7 Inherent Aircraft Motions as Characteristics of Design
18.8 Design Considerations for Stability – Civil Aircraft
18.9 Military Aircraft – Non‐Linear Effects
18.10 Active Control Technology (ACT) – Fly‐by‐Wire (FBW)
18.11 Summary of Design Considerations for Stability
References
19 Materials and Structures
19.1 Overview
19.2 Introduction
19.3 Function of Structure – Loading
19.4 Basic Definitions – Structures
19.5 From Structure to Material
19.6 Basic Definitions – Materials
19.7 Material Properties
19.8 Considerations with Respect to Design
19.9 Structural Configuration
19.10 Materials – General Considerations
19.11 Metals
19.12 Wood and Fabric
19.13 Composite Materials
19.14 Structural Configurations
19.15 Rules of Thumb and Concept Checks
19.16 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)/Finite Element Method (FEM)
References
20 Aircraft Manufacturing Considerations
20.1 Overview
20.2 Introduction
20.3 Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFM/A)
20.4 Manufacturing Practices
20.5 Six‐Sigma Concept
20.6 Tolerance Relaxation at the Wetted Surface
20.7 Reliability and Maintainability (R&M)
20.8 The Design Considerations
20.9 ‘Design for Customer’ (A Figure of Merit)
20.10 Digital Manufacturing Process Management
References
21 Miscellaneous Design Considerations
21.1 Overview
21.2 Introduction
21.3 History of FAA – the Role of Regulation
21.4 Flight Test
21.5 Contribution by the Ground Effect on Takeoff
21.6 Aircraft Environmental Issues
21.7 Flying in Adverse Environments
21.8 Military Aircraft Flying Hazards
21.9 End‐of‐Life Disposal
21.10 Extended Range Twin‐Engine Operation (ETOP)
21.11 Flight and Human Physiology
21.12 Some Emerging Scenarios
References
22 Aircraft Systems
22.1 Overview
22.2 Introduction
22.3 Environmental Issues (Noise and Engine Emission)
22.4 Safety Issues
22.5 Aircraft Flight Deck (Cockpit) Layout
22.6 Aircraft Systems
22.7 Flying in Adverse Environments and Passenger Utility
22.8 Military Aircraft Survivability
References
23 Computational Fluid Dynamics
23.1 Overview
23.2 Introduction
23.3 Current Status
23.4 Approach Road to CFD Analyses
23.5 Some Case Studies
23.6 Hierarchy of CFD Simulation Methods
23.7 Summary of Discussions
References
24 Electric Aircraft⋆
24.1 Overview
24.2 Introduction
24.3 Energy Storage
24.4 Prime Mover – Motors
24.5 Electric Powered Aircraft Power Train
24.6 Hybrid Electric Aircraft (HEA)
24.7 Distributed Electric Propulsion (DEP)
24.8 Electric Aircraft Related Theory/Analyses
24.9 Electric Powered Aircraft Sizing
24.10 Discussion
24.11 Worked‐Out Example
References
Appendix A: Conversions and Important Equations
Appendix B: International Standard Atmosphere Table Data from Hydrostatic Equations
Appendix C: Fundamental Equations (See Table of Contents for Symbols and Nomenclature.)
C.1. Kinetics
C.2 Thermodynamics
Supersonic Aerodynamics
C.4 Normal Shock
C.5 Oblique Shock
C.6 Supersonic Flow Past a 2D Wedge
C.7 Supersonic Flow Past 3D Cone
C.8 Incompressible Low Speed Wind Tunnel (Open Circuit)
Appendix D: Some Case Studies – Aircraft Data
D.1. Airbus320 Class Aircraft
D.2. Drag Computation
D.3a. SUGGESTED EXERCICES FOR THE READERS
D.3. The Belfast (B100) – A Fokker F100 Class Aircraft
D.4. The AK4 (4‐Place Utility Aircraft) – Retractable Undercarriage
Appendix E: Aerofoil Data
Data Courtesy of I. R. Abbott and A. E. Von Doenhoff, Theory of Wing Sections.
Appendix F: Wheels and Tyres
F.1. Glossary – Bias Tyres
F.2. Glossary – Radial Bias Tyres
F.3. Tyre Terminology
F.4. Typical Tyre Data
Index
End User License Agreement
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7 Aircraft Statistics, Configuration Choices and Layout
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8 Configuring Aircraft – Concept Definition
Part II
Aircraft Design
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