A
Abbe prism, 104
ACOS algorithm
estimated thickness profile, 764–765
phase estimation, 761
Acousto-optic modulator (AOM), 434
frequency fluctuation, 306–307
AF, see Auto-focus (AF)
Air refractive index, 406
Ciddor’s equation, 415
Edlén equations, 415
interference phase topography, 417
Lorenz–Lorentz equation, 415
refractometric methods, 415
vacuum cell, 416
wavelength, 414
Amplitude modulation (AM), 313, 446
Antireflection coating (AR coating), 208, 244, 312, 407, 437, 729–730
APD, see Avalanche photodiode (APD)
Apertureless probe, 391, 393–394
Aspheric surfaces, 98
Astigmatism method, 91–92, 99, 220, 481–482
Atomic force microscope (AFM), 393, 396, 810–811
Atomic force/photon scanning tunneling microscope (AF/PSTM), 396
Attenuator, 140, 143, 148, 214
Auto-edge detection technology, 830, 833
Auto-focus (AF), 844–846, 849–851
Avalanche photodiode (APD), 313
avalanche multiplication, 114–115
breakdown voltage, 114
Geiger-mode APD
equivalent circuit, 115
impact ionization, 114
B
Babinet–Soleil compensator, 383, 698
Babinet’s principle, 348
Band-pass filter, 732
Barrett’s esophagus (BE), 360–361
Beam splitter (BS), 435
Benchtop configuration, 804–806
Berek compensator, 383
Birefringence mapping techniques, 382
Birefringence measurement
optical heterodyne method, 696–698
detected intensity, 699
LC retarders, 700
phase difference, 700
plastic disk inspection, 701–702
polarization society, 677
polarization states
circular polarization, 681–682
elliptical polarization, 681–682
linear polarization, 681
Blackbody radiators, 28, 36–37
Brewster angle, 179–181, 706, 709, 734
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM), 405
C
Calibration specimen, 156
Camera shutter, 148
Cauchy model, 715–716, 718–720
CCD-digital radiography (CCD-DR), 134
Charge-coupled device (CCD), 231, 519, 523
back-illuminated CCD, 57, 124, 126–127
CCD-DR, 134
vs. CMOS, 126
front-illuminated CCD, 126–127
I-CCDs, 130
interline-transfer and frame-transfer layouts, 124–125
multi-port, 130
Chemical etching method, 391–392
Chinese hamster’s oocytes (CHO), 355
Chromatic confocal imaging method, 490–491
Circular birefringence, 631, 652, 668
Circular diattenuation, 628, 631
Circular retardance, 631
Circular retardation, 631
CMOS image sensor
vs. CCD, 126
Coaxial confocal microscopic method, 486–487
Coaxial-episcopic illuminator, 840
Coherence gating method, 360
Coherence scanning interferometry (CSI)
AFM measurements, 811
coherence-based method, 800
Fourier phases, 800
frequency-domain analysis method, 801, 808
highly textured surface structure, 799
modulation envelope, 798, 800, 808
numerical aperture (NA), 799
OCT, 802
serviceable conceptual model, 799
surface film structure, 809
tilt fringes, 797
top-surface location method, 810
Colorimetry, 5
chromaticity coordinates, 24–25
CIE color matching functions, 23–24
CIE test-color method, 25
colorimetric shift, 25
CRI, 25
spectroradiometers, 25
tristimulus colorimeters, 25
tristimulus values, 23
U–B/B–V color index, 26
Color rendering index (CRI), 25
Comité International des Poids et Mesures (CIPM), 406, 410
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), 39
Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensors (CMOS)
acquisition speeds, 243
vs. CCD, 126
digital holography, 597
ICCD camera, 671
readout electronics, 121
spectral sensitivity, 763
Confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM), 397
Confocal light absorption and scattering spectroscopic (CLASS) microscopy, 364–367
Contrast detection method, 486–489
Corner reflector, 312, 434–437, 778–779
Correlated color temperature (CCT), 28, 36, 58
Cosine error, 412–414, 423, 437
CSI, see Coherence scanning interferometry (CSI)
Cube interferometer, 410
D
Deep ultraviolet (DUV) linear birefringence polarimeter
CsI photomultiplier tube, 657
intrinsic birefringence, 656–657
linear retardation maps, 658–660
Mueller matrix calculus, 657–658
Soleil–Babinet compensator, 658
stress-birefringence dispersion, 658–660
Degrees of freedom (DOF), 459
Diascopic illuminator, 833, 838–840
Diattenuation, 628, 630–631, 647–648, 652, 662–663, 678
Diffraction
diffractographic method, 349–351
Fraunhofer region, 343
fundamentals of
aperture, 345
Babinet’s principle, 348
Fourier transformation method, 346
Fresnel–Kirchhoff diffraction formula, 343–344
mechanical micrometer method, 349
pattern, 346
tensile strength testing, 347
toolmaker’s microscope method, 349
grating diffraction method, 351–352
Diffractography technique, 349
Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS), 360
Digital holography, 226
arrangements
CCD, 231
CMOS, 231
convolution method, 599
electro-optical sensors, 231
ESPI, 241
Fresnel transform method, 599–600
high-resolution 3D representations, 231
metrological application, 241
microscopy
scanning electron microscope, 237, 239
spatial resolution, 237
3D profile, 237
microsystems investigation, 244–245
object deformations measurement, 241–242
quantitative amplitude and phase, 600
short coherence light source
OCT, 237
phase-shifting method, 239
plane selection, 239
reconstructed images, fly, 239
2D discrete FT, 233
Digital mirror device (DMD), 145, 496, 500–501, 523
Digital photogrammetry
automobile measurement
car bottom, 571
cultural heritage, architecture, and topography application
aerial and ground photographs, 566, 568
Archaeological Museum of Messene (Greece), 565–566
Byzantine church of Agia Samarina (Ancient Messene), 565, 567
Byzantine ruins on Gemiler Island, 564–565
wall relief 3D modeling, 564
human body measurement
photographing setup, 570
SLR-type digital camera, 570
surface model, 570
texture-mapping model, 570
photogrammetric SLAM
SFM, 563
visual SLAM, 563
principle
bundle adjustment process, 558
single photogrammetry, 556–557
stereo photogrammetry, 557–558
process flow measurement, 559
3D image reconstruction and output, 562–563
3D measurement, 562
Digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI)
fringe analysis
“difference-of-phases” method, 261–263
out-of-plane displacement, 257–259
“phase-of-differences” method, 261
phase ramp/carrier, 259
phase unwrapping method, 262
PZT, 261
spatial carrier, 261
optical systems
in-plane displacement, 262–263
out-of-plane displacement, 262–264
shearing devices, 264
3D profile measurement, 257
uses, 257
Digital speckle photography (DSP), 251, 636, 638, 640
Digital speckle shear pattern interferometry (DSSPI), 257
Discrete cosine transform (DCT), 262
Dispersion, light
color of objects, 190
in dielectrics
linear complex dielectric susceptibility, 187
macroscopic polarization, 186–187
group velocity of wave packet, 189–190
Displacement
distance measurements
fine scale, 445
modulation method, 446
optical frequency sweep method, 446–447
optical measurements, 444
pulse method, 445
two color measurement, 448–449
laser interferometer
Abbe error, 437
cosine error, 437
dead path, 436
Fabry–Perot cavity, 438
homodyne and heterodyne interferometer, 434
nonlinear errors, 437
optical path lengths and thermal change, 436–437
refractive index of air, 435–436
linear encoders
diffraction scale encoders, 441
enclosed and exposed type, 439
hologram scale encoders, 442
image transmission scale encoders, 441
incremental-type and absolute-type, 440
magnetic type and the magnet-electric type, 438
manufacturing and machine tools, 438
optical scale, 438
rotary encoders, 438
scale mark detection, 440
Distortion, primary aberrations, 88, 90–92
DMD, see Digital mirror device (DMD)
Doppler method
defect, 321
Doppler shift, 320
vs. heterodyne method
accuracy, 321
velocity and displacement measurement, 322
DSP, see Digital speckle photography (DSP)
DSPI, see Digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI)
Dysplasia
BE, 361
classifications, 364
diagnosis of, 360
gastrointestinal tract, 361
inflammatory bowel disease, 361
LGD/HGD, 363
E
Effective medium approximation (EMA), 714, 716, 721
Ehringhaus compensator, 383
Eigen coordinate system, 380
Electric distance meters (EDMs), 446
Electroluminescence, 28, 32, 41–42
Electronic speckle interferometry, 241, 257, 528
Electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI), 253, 257
Electron-multiplying CCD (EM-CCD), 127–128
Electro-optic crystal, 383, 385
Electro-optic modulator (EOM), 306–307, 321
Ellipsometry
definition, 705
dielectric constant, 705
dielectric function
definition, 714
Si crystal, 717
drawback, 706
linear polarization, 707
measurement principle, 707–708
optical constants, 705
optical model
air/thin layer/substrate structure, 712
EMA, 714
p- and s-polarization, 708–709
plane of incidence, 708
polarized light, 706
RAE
Fourier coefficients, 710
light intensity, 710
normalized light intensity, 710–711
right-circular polarization, 707
single-wavelength ellipsometry
air/thin layer/c-Si structure, 718
mathematical inversion, 720–722
spectroscopic ellipsometry, 718
VUV, 712
Elliptical polarization, 168, 679–682, 707, 711
Ellipticity, 377–380, 382–387, 686–687, 700
EMA, see Effective medium approximation (EMA)
Epithelial nuclei, 360
ESAD, see Extended shear angle difference (ESAD)
ESPI, see Electronic speckle interferometry; Electronic speckle pattern interferometry (ESPI)
Evanescent wave, 184–185, 390, 397
Exicor OIA (oblique incident angle), 660–661
Extended shear angle difference (ESAD), 471
F
Fab mode, 667
Fabry–Perot cavity, 72, 438, 445
Fast Fourier transform (FFT), 231, 286, 504, 843
FD-OCT, see Fourier-domain OCT (FD-OCT)
Femtosecond laser processing, 399
Film thickness profiling
pseudo-transmission interferometry, 753–755
refractive index measurement, 755–757
thick transparent films
measurable range, 748
refractive index effect, 748, 750
SP-500F film profiler, 747
white-light interferometry, 744–745
thin transparent films
cross section, 751
three wavelength interference color analysis
Davidon–Fletcher–Powell method, 764
experimental apparatus, 762–763
GMFT (see Global model fitting for thickness (GMFT))
spectral transmittance, 762–763
Finite-difference time-domain (FDTD), 356, 396–397
Finite element method (FEM), 265
Fizeau interferometers, 409–410
Fourier transform method, 469
interference fringe pattern, 462–463
laser, 208
national standard Fizeau interferometer, 467–468
optical arrangement, 208
optical configuration, 462–463
PSI
coherent noise, 467
environmental fluctuations, 466
mounting method, 466
phase-shifting errors, 466
PZT, 464
surface of transmission sphere, 209
surface profile determination, 464–466
Flatness measurements
angle sensor systems
ESAD, 471
Fizeau interferometer (see Fizeau interferometers)
oblique incidence interferometer, 469–470
glass substrate, 662
in-line application, 667
retardation compensation films, 666
Flexible LEDs, see Polymer LEDs (PLEDs)
Flow measurement
LDV
data-processing computer, 606
Doppler burst, 607
Doppler frequency, 607
fiber-optic system, 610
optical arrangement and SNR, 608–609
photodetector, 606
signal processor, 606
PIV (see Particle image velocimetry (PIV))
critical-angle method, 481–482
focus detection method, 484
HIPOSS system, 483
optical stylus method, 483–485
Rodenstock Model RM 600 3-D/C, 483–484
Fourier analysis method, 390
Fourier-domain OCT (FD-OCT), 772, 777
Fourier transform (FT)
convolution theorem, 230
plane reference wave, 229
spectrums of, 229
2D function, 228
Fourier transformation method, 346, 542
Four-stepping phase-shifting algorithm, 498
FPD, see Flat panel display (FPD)
Fraunhofer diffraction, 343, 347
Free-space communication, 59
initial phase, 286
temporal carrier frequency, 286
virtual wave number, 284
wavelength shift method, 284
Fresnel formulae
electric vector
parallel to plane of incidence, 176
perpendicular to plane of incidence, 175
energy, 177
incident, reflected, and refracted waves, 174
reflectivity and transmissivity, 177–179
Fresnel–Kirchhoff diffraction formula, 343–344
Fresnel’s biprism, 204
Fringe analysis
definition, 541
intensity distribution, 542
multiple-input images, 542
phase-shifting method, 543–544
three-buckets phase-shifting method, 544–545
phase analysis, 541
single-input image, 542
carrier fringes, 546
Fizeau interferometer, 547–548
Fringe-counting interferometers, 410
Fringe evaluation techniques, 408
Full width at half maximum (FWHM), 398
G
Gas discharge lamps
high-pressure discharge lamps, 39–41
ionized gas, 37
low-pressure discharge lamps, 38–39
Geiger-mode APD
equivalent circuit, 115
Geometrical distance, 407, 448–449
Global model fitting for thickness (GMFT)
initial estimates, 760
necessary condition, 760
synthesized color chart, 758–759
Global positioning system (GPS), 556, 566
GMFT, see Global model fitting for thickness (GMFT)
Goos–Hänchen shift, 184–185, 192–193
Grating monochromator
dispersion process, 18
geometrical optical process, 18
Group refractive index, 448
H
Half-wave plate (HWP), 380, 696
Harmonic waves, 164
Heat stretching method, 391–392
HeLa cells, 355
Heterodyne-type laser interferometer, 434–435
High-grade dysplasia (HGD), 360–361, 363
High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps, 39–40, 58–59; see also High-pressure discharge lamps
High-pressure die-casting (HPDC), 507
High-pressure discharge lamps, 39–41
High-pressure mercury-vapor (HMPV) lamps, 39–40
High-pressure sodium (HPS) discharge lamps, 40
High-reflection coating, 730–731
Holo-graphic method, 351
Holographic optical element (HOE), 257
Holographic particle image velocimetry (HPIV) method
digital holographic PTV technique, 621–623
Holography
applications, 225
computer-generated holography, 226
concept, 225
digital holography (see Digital holography)
hologram
Fourier transform (see Fourier transform (FT))
off-axis reference beam method, 225
3D images, 225
3D television and information storage, 226
HPDC, see High-pressure die-casting (HPDC)
HPIV method, see Holographic particle image velocimetry (HPIV) method
Huygens’ principle, 359
Hybrid photodetector (HPD), 118–119
coordinate measurement machine, 507–508
HPDC, 507
I
Image intensifier
structure and operating principle, 128–129
Image processing technique, 353, 542
and cameras
front-illuminated CCD, 126–127
types
Indefinite for dysplasia (IND), 361
focused and unfocused pupil, 212–213
fringe pattern, 213
infrared optical systems, 211
MTF testing, 213
phase-shifting systems, 213
reflection configurations, 212
Inner profile measurement, 512–513
Instrumentation, near-field optics
probe height control system, 393–395
SNOM, calibration of
optical false images, elimination of, 395–396
resolution, 394
Instrument transfer function (ITF), 817–819
Intensified CCD (I-CCD), 130, 671
Intensity detection method, 480–481
Interference microscopy
CSI
coherence-based method, 800
Fourier phases, 800
frequency-domain analysis method, 801
highly textured surface structure, 799
modulation envelope, 798
OCT, 802
serviceable conceptual model, 799
tilt fringes, 797
history, 792
instrument design
light source and detection, 802
postprocessing, 807
system configurations, 804–807
Michelson interferometer, 794–795
PSI
algorithm design, 796
arctangent function, 796
discrete sample intensities, 795
intensity sampling, 795
linear phase shift, 796
3D image, 797
signal modeling
conceptual diagram, 808
obliquity factor, 809
surface structure analysis, 792–793
surface topography
vibration and environmental effects, 814–815
Interference orders, 407, 417, 421–422
Interferogram, 205, 235, 241, 407–408, 419–420, 745–746, 775, 777, 782
Interferometers
additional corrections
optics error correction, 427–428
platen flexing, 430
surface roughness and phase change on reflection, 429
wringing contact, body and platen, 429–430
BIPM, 405
CIPM, 406
length measurements
Fizeau interferometers, 409–410
Fringe-counting interferometers, 410
refractive index of air, 414–417
temperature measurement, 417
Twyman–Green interferometer, 407–409
prismatic bodies
imaging of body, pixel array, 418–419
interferogram analysis, 419–420
length measurement applications, 422–426
Interferometry
aberration
astigmatism, 220
coma, 220
spherical, 220
Fizeau interferometer
laser, 208
optical arrangement, 207
surface of transmission sphere, 209
fringe analysis
computer-aided, 218
extrapolation, 219
MTF, 219
phase-shifting software, 219–220
static fringe digitization software, 218–220
Strehl ratio, 219
wavefront error, 218
interference
Fresnel’s biprism, 204
Lloyd’s experiment, 205
Young’s slits, 204
interfering waves
angular subtense, 201
complex amplitude summation, 198
high- and low-contrast fringes, 199
non-equal amplitude summation, 198–199
sag of wavefront, 202
two beam interference, 199–200
wavefront aberration, 203
IR (see Infrared (IR) interferometry)
simple interferometer, 206–207
test arrangements
concave surfaces, 214
convex surfaces, 214
domes, 217
flats, 214
lens, 215
material blanks, 215
Twyman–Green interferometer, 209
laser sources, 209
Mach–Zender interferometer, 210
shear plate interferometer, 210–211
Interpolation technology, 440
J
Jones/Muller matrix computation, 381
Jones vector, 590, 592, 684–685
K
Kodak DCS Pro-Back, 564
Kösters prism, 408
Kösters–Zeiss interference comparator, 408–409
L
Lanthanum-modified lead zirconate titanate (PLZT) shutter, 148
Laser auto-focus sensor, 849–851
Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV), 605
data-processing computer, 606–607
Doppler burst, 607
Doppler frequency, 607
fiber-optic system, 610
optical arrangement and SNR, 608–609
photodetector, 606
signal processor, 607
Lasers
cooling system, 72
laser cavity, 71
light amplification, 69
light characteristics
irradiance, 79
laser beam focus, 79
monochromaticity, 75
transverse spatial coherence, 77–78
liquid active medium, 80
operating characteristics
axial modes, 72
continuous wave and pulsed operation, 75
transverse modes, 73
properties, 66
semiconductor active medium, 80–81
solid-state active medium, 80
Laser Tracker® (Leica Geosystems), 447
LDV, see Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV)
LEDs, see Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
Left circularly polarized (LCP), 374–375
Length measurement, interferometry
applications
glass ceramics material, 426
single-crystal silicon, 424–425
thermocouples, 423
Lenses
aspheric surfaces, 98
elements, 94
optical materials (see Optical materials)
photogrammetry, 105
relay, 104
testing and single-wavelength systems, 99
Light control device, 145
Light deflection principle, 147
Light emission
blackbody radiation
CCT, 28
incandescence, 26
luminosity of spherical star, 28
luminosity of Sun, 28
spectral exitance, 27
Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 28
total radiant exitance, 27
cathodoluminescence, 33
electroluminescence, 32
fluorescence, 29
multiphoton photoluminescence
modified Roosbroeck–Shockley equation, 31
PL spectra, 31
three-dimensional micro-lithography, 30
two-photon absorption, 30
upconversion fluorescence process, 30
phosphorescence, 29
photoluminescence, 28
scintillation, 35
sonoluminescence, 33
triboluminescence, 35
applications
blue LED fishing lamp, 66
emission spectral range, 57–58
high-speed pulsed LED light generator, 64
LED/LED two-way communication method, 60, 62
in medicine and dentistry, 64–65
mold’s growth suppression, 66
photo-coupler/photo-relay, 62–63
solar cell, 62
translator, 63
dominant wavelength, 43
electron–hole pairs, 42
emission output, 44
external quantum efficiency, 46
extraction efficiency, 45
intensity of photon energy, 42
internal quantum efficiency, 44
linear encoders, 439
metrology
luminous flux measurements, 55–56
luminous intensity measurements, 54–55
mapping spatial radiation pattern, 56
measurement instrumentation, 56–57
refractive index, 45
white
luminous efficiency and CRI, 49
lunar white, 49
phosphor-based white LED, 49–50
phosphorescence, 48
wavelength conversion materials, 49
in dielectrics, 172
electric and magnetic field, 167–168
in metamaterials (see Metamaterials (MMs))
reflection and refraction
degree of polarization, 179
Fresnel formulae (see Fresnel formulae)
internal reflection, 181
normal incidence, 179
Light scattering
angle scattering, 356
CLASS
apoptosis, 367
CLASS microscope, 365
CLASS spectrum, 366
confocal reflectance microscopy, 364
elastic scattering spectroscopy, 364
exogenous fluorescence probes, 364
fluorescence microscopy, 367
optical coherent tomography, 364
scalar wave model, 365
early cancer detection, LSS
adenocarcinoma, 361
anti-p53
antibodies, 361
Barrett’s esophagus, 360
dysplasia/CIS classifications, 364
esophagectomy, 361
gastro-enterological endoscopy procedures, 362
IND, 363
LGD, 361
NDB, 363
nuclear size distributions, 362
optical diagnostic technology, 361
FDTD simulations, 356
Mie theory, 355
refractive index, 356
scattering pattern, 355
single nanoparticles, LSS of, 368–369
van de Hulst approximation, 355–356
Light scattering spectroscopy (LSS), 356
gas discharge lamps
high-pressure discharge lamps, 39–41
ionized gas, 37
low-pressure discharge lamps, 38–39
grating monochromator
dispersion process, 18
geometrical optical process, 18
LEDs (see Light-emitting diodes (LEDs))
parasitic interference, 411
size of, 411
source power, 16
source size and shape, 18
spatial coherence, 411
specific spectral lamps, 410
temporal coherence, 410
computer-controlled X−Y stage
Bessel function, 649
instrumental stability, 650–651
magnitude and angular orientation, 650
Mueller matrix calculus, 649
Soleil–Babinet compensator, 650–651
DUV linear birefringence polarimeter
CsI photomultiplier tube, 657
intrinsic birefringence, 656–657
linear retardation maps, 658–660
Mueller matrix calculus, 657–658
Soleil–Babinet compensator, 658
stress-birefringence dispersion, 658–659
photomasks
Moore’s law, 652
requirements, 652
retardation and diattenuation, 630–631
Linearly horizontal polarized (LHP), 374
Linearly vertical polarized (LVP), 374–375
Linear polariscope, 688, 690–691
Linear retardation, see Linear birefringence
Liquid crystal display (LCD), see Flat panel display (FPD)
Liquid crystal (LC) polarization rotator
intensity equations, 592
Jones’ calculus, 592
MATLAB® algorithm, 593
Lloyd’s experiment, 205
Longitudinal spatial coherence, see Temporal coherence
Long trace profiler (LTP), 471–472
Long-wave pass filter, 731–732
Low-grade dysplasia (LGD), 361, 363–364
Low-pressure discharge lamps, 38–39
Low-pressure mercury discharge lamps, 39
Low-pressure sodium (LPS) arc lamps, 39
Luminescent radiators, see Nonthermal radiators
Luminous efficiency
fluorescent lamps, 38
gas discharge lamps, 37
HPS lamps, 40
incandescent/tungsten halogen lamps, 36
metal-halide lamps, 40
M
Mach–Zender interferometer, 210
Magnescale Co., Ltd., 442
Magnetic field pitch angle, 636–637
Magneto-optical (MO) method, 400
Maxwell’s equations
Ampere’s law for free space, 162–163
electric permittivity and permeability, 163–164
Faraday’s induction law for free space, 162–163
forces, 163
Gauss’s law for electric field, 162
Gauss’s law for magnetic field, 162
vector divergence and curl, 164
Mechanical micrometer method, 349
Mechanism element, 149
Mercury–xenon arc lamps, 16, 40
Mesopic, 6
Metal-halide lamps, 40
amplitude reflection coefficients, 192
applications, 190
permittivity and permeability, 191–192
total internal reflection, 192
Method of exact fractions, 421–422
Michelson interferometer
interference signal, 794, 807–808
laser interferometer, 434
Twyman–Green interferometer, 407
Michelson-type interference objective, 802
Micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS)
fabrication technique, 264–265
out-of-plane deformation, 244–245
Micrometer, 153–154, 349, 862–863
Micromotor, 155
Micro-PIV system, 616, 623–625
MMs, see Metamaterials (MMs)
Modulation transfer function (MTF), 213, 219, 817
Moiré method, 440–441, 478, 519, 550–551
Moiré metrology
applications, 273
dot arrays and grid lines, 273–274
flatness measurement system, 289–290
in-plane
linear strain measurement, 276–277
shear strain measurement, 277–278
moiré-based optical tweezers, 291
out-of-plane
projection moiré methods, 278, 287–288
shadow moiré method (see Shadow moiré method)
overlapping line grating/random patterns, 290
reflection moiré method, 288
sampling moiré method
rotating tire, 3D shape measurement, 296
spatial phase-shifting methods, 295
specified camera system, 295
strain distribution measurement, 296–297
shape measurement
liquid crystal grating and CCD camera, 292, 294–295
optical configuration, 292–293
projection moiré, 292
reconstructed coin image, 292, 294
sample coin and measured results, 292, 294
Monochromaticity, 75
Motional Stark effect (MSE) polarimeter, 637–638
four modulator Mueller polarimeter, 647–648
Multiangle spectropolarimetric imager (MSPI), 634
Multiphoton photoluminescence
modified Roosbroeck–Shockley equation, 31
PL spectra, 31
three-dimensional micro-lithography, 30
two-photon absorption, 30
upconversion fluorescence process, 30
Multi-pixel photon counter (MPPC), 115–116
Multi-pixel sensors, 121–122, 135
Multipoint diffraction strain sensor (MISS), 595–597
N
National Metrology Institute of Japan (NMIJ), 443–444, 467–468
Nature of light
electric and magnetic vectors, 165, 167
electromagnetic spectrum, 171–172
light polarization (see Light polarization)
light speed in vacuum, 166
photons, radiation pressure, and momentum, 170–171
Poynting vector, 169
three-dimensional plane electromagnetic wave, 166
transverse waves, 166
Near-field optics
applications
FDTD method, simulation based on, 396–397
micro-focused spot, 397
super resolution imaging, 397–398
evanescent field, 390
instrumentation
probe height control system, 393–394
SNOM, 389
Newton–Raphson method, 587
NMIJ, see National Metrology Institute of Japan (NMIJ)
Non destructive testing (NDT), 264
Non-dysplastic Barrett’s (NDB), 363
Nonlinear errors, 437
Nonpolarized beam splitter (NPBS), 312, 331
Nonthermal radiators, 28
Nucleated blood cells, 355
Numerical mathematical model, 381
O
Oblique incidence interferometer, 469–470
Oblique light illuminator, 840–841
OCT, see Optical coherence tomography (OCT)
Optical alignment systems
alignment autocollimator, 454
alignment telescope, 453
autocollimator, 454
Optical bench, 140, 150–151, 648
Optical coherence tomography (OCT)
operating principle
Gaussian distribution, 773–774
interference intensity, 775–776
Michelson interferometer, 770–771
signal processing, 777
white light interferometer, 771
ophthalmologic OCTs, 770, 772, 777, 786
portable version (see Portable OCT scanner)
SD-OCT and TD-OCT, 772, 777–778
short coherence digital holography, 237, 239
Optical contacting, 430
Optical design
theory
paraxial approximation, 90
surface refraction, 90
thin lens approximation, 90
thin lens layout, 91
Optical distance, 448–449, 862
Optical element
Optical fibers
classification, 146
communications, 59
mode, 147
step-index-type optical fiber, 147
Optical flat, 156–157, 411–412, 427–428, 467–468
Optical heterodyne method
accuracy and noise reduction
environment, 309
frequency-stabilized HeNe laser, 311–312
interference circuit and parts, 312–313
sample surface and sample holder, 312–313
application
birefringence index and polarimeter, 318–319
displacement measurement, 315
dynamical surface measurement, 320
femto-second pulse laser, 315
fiber sensors, 320
instruments and systems production, 315
photothermal interferometry, 317
positioning with stage, 315
thermal expansion coefficient, 317–318
vibration amplitude and frequency, 315
Young’s modulus, thin film, 318–319
birefringence measurement, 696–698
cancelable optical circuit
environment fluctuation, 305–306
frequency fluctuation, 305
simultaneous measurement and basement displacement, 304
thickness variation measurement, 304–305
two signal phases, 303
wavelength and optical path length, 302–303
Doppler method
accuracy, 321
defect, 321
Doppler shift, 320
shift value and measuring time, 308
velocity and displacement measurement, 308, 322
dynamic measurement, 314
high-precision measurement, 300–302
static measurement, 314
transient measurement
cantilever vibration, 333, 335
concentration fluctuation, 335–337
phase detection and displacement, 328–329
photoelectric conversion circuit, 326–327
reflection light detection, 323–324
static phenomena, 322
transmission light detection, 323–324
tuning fork (see Tuning fork)
Optical integrated circuit, 147–148
Optical materials
dispersion, 95
n−V glass chart, 95
Optical monitoring
antireflection coating, 737
polarizer detector array, 736
reflection monitoring system, 735
TPM, 734
Optical parallel, 157–158, 467–468
Optical path difference (OPD), see Wave-front aberration
Optical polariscope, 147
Optical scanner, 147
Optical thin films
antireflection coating, 729–730
band-pass filter, 732
changes in reflectance, 727–728
electric field, 726
ellipsometry, 738
equivalent refractive index, 728
high-reflection coating, 730–731
interference filter, 725
light propagation, 726
long-wave pass filter, 731–732
optical monitoring
antireflection coating, 737
polarizer detector array, 736
reflection monitoring system, 735
TPM, 734
reflectance and transmittance, 729
short-wave pass filter, 731–732
single-layer film, 726
two-beam interference, 727–728
Optoelectronic integrated circuit (OEIC), 148
Optoelectronic sensors
image sensors (see Image sensors)
photons–electrons conversion, 108–110
point sensors (see Point sensors)
position-sensitive sensors, 122–124
readout electronics recording methods, 120
selection
factors, 108
guide, 135
x-ray/gamma ray sensors
P
Particle image velocimetry (PIV)
flow dynamics, 610
HPIV method
digital holographic PTV technique, 621–623
SPIV method
axial-fan and measurement planes, 618–619
turbulent boundary layer, 616
Particle streak velocimetry (PSV), 613–614
Particle tracking velocimetry (PTV), see Particle image velocimetry (PIV)
Pattern matching, 841, 843–844
digital techniques
four-stepping phase-shifting, 498
profile measurement system, 497
profilometric techniques
downsizing/compact system, 502–507
high-speed measurement, 500–502
hybrid sensing (see Hybrid sensing system)
inner profile measurement, 512–513
traditional techniques
optical arrangement, 495
patterns, 495
P3D cameras, see Portable 3D (P3D) cameras
Pechan prism, 103
PEM, see Photoelastic modulator (PEM)
Petzval curvature/sum, see Field curvature
Phase change on reflection (PCOR), 815–816
Phase-shifting interferometry (PSI)
algorithm design, 796
arctangent function, 796
coherent noise, 467
digital/electronic speckle and speckle shear, 257
discrete sample intensities, 795
environmental fluctuations, 466
intensity sampling, 795
linear phase shift, 796
mounting method, 466
phase-shifting errors, 466
3D image, 797
Phase-shifting method
detected intensity, 699
four-step algorithm, 260–261, 282, 291–292
grating, vertical movement and rotation, 283–284
LC retarders, 700
limitation, 284
phase difference, 700
plastic disk inspection, 701–702
shape measurement
coin surface arrangement, 291
mutual phase difference, 291–292
Phase-shifting speckle interferometry (PSSI), 257
Phase-stepping interferometry, 408–409, 411–412, 418–419, 427
Phasogrammetry principle, 505–506
Photodiode (PD), 66, 108–109, 313, 483, 485, 488, 712, 856
Photoelastic modulator (PEM); see also Mueller matrix polarimeter; Stokes polarimeter
design, 631
detected intensity, 695
optical arrangement, 693–694, 696
optical element and piezoelectric transducer, 631–632
phase modulation, 695
photoelastic effect, 631
polarization modulation, 631–632
quality, 632
retardance, 694
Photogrammetry lenses, 105
Photographic filter, 143
Photoluminescence (PL), 28
astronomical object brightness
absolute photometry, 23
aperture photometry, 23
differential photometry, 23
Johnson–Cousins photometric system, 22
Johnson–Morgan UBV system, 22
magnitudes, 21
red shift, 22
relative photometry, 23
trigonometric parallax, 22
goniophotometers, 21
rotating mirror photometers, 21
spherical photometers, 21
Photometry
definition, 5
frequency range, 5
measurements (see Photometric measurements)
light source (see Light sources)
lumens to watts conversion, 15–16
luminous intensity, 12
watts to lumens conversion, 13–15
Photomultiplier, 22, 35, 110, 115, 350, 353, 606, 609–610, 643, 711–712
Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), 110
applications, 118
flat panel, 117
miniature, 118
Photonic crystals (PCs), 53, 91, 401
Photons–electrons conversion
photoconductive effect, 109–110
photoelectric effect, 110
Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), 444, 467
Piezoelectric element, 149, 154–155
Piezoelectric transducer (PZT), 261, 265, 464, 466, 544, 803
PIV, see Particle image velocimetry (PIV)
Planckian radiator, 28, 36, 56
Plane waves, generation and alignment
cosine error, 413
laser beams, 412
retroreflection method, 413–414
visual autocollimation adjustment scheme, 413
Plastic optical fiber, 52, 59, 147
PMTs, see Photomultiplier tubes (PMTs)
Pneumatic spring, 152
Poincaré sphere, 629, 684, 686–687
high-light-level applications, 113–114
low-light-level applications
Polarimetry
camera imaging polarimeter, 671–673
chemical, biochemical, and pharmaceutical applications
circular dichroism spectrometer, 668
fluorescence and light scattering, 633, 669
FPD industry
glass substrate, 662
retardation compensation films, 666
linear birefringence, optical lithography industry (see Linear birefringence)
Mueller matrix polarimeter (see Mueller matrix polarimeter)
near-normal reflection, nuclear fuel industry, 662–663
PEM
design, 631
optical element and piezoelectric transducer, 631–632
photoelastic effect, 631
polarization modulation, 631–632
quality, 632
retardation and diattenuation, 630–631
silicon (Si)-based solar cell technology, 669–671
Stokes polarimeter (see Stokes polarimeter)
Polarization
circular polarization, 681–682
complete polarization state generator
fixed linear polarizer and two variable retarders (type 2), 386–387
fixed linear polarizer and two variable retarders (type I), 385–386
independently rotating linear polarizer and quarter-wave plate, 381–382
jointly rotating linear polarizer and variable retarder, 382–383
rotating linear polarizer and fixed variable retarder, 383–385
degenerate polarization states, 374
electric and magnetic fields, 373
ellipse transformations, 378–379
elliptical polarization, 681–682
linear polarization, 681
society, 677
Polarization background subtraction technique, 360
Polarization beam splitter (PBS), 312, 435, 483, 655–656
Polymer LEDs (PLEDs), 53
chamfer, 102
paper-strip diagram, 101
Portable 3D (P3D) cameras, 505
Portable OCT scanner
industrial applications
laser fusion, 782
multifunctioning system, 787–788
plant measurement, 788
tablet coating, 783
transparent laminated tube, 782–783
medical applications
future technology, 788
ophthalmologic field, 784, 786
skin measurement, 786
operating principle
long-path scanning, 778–779, 784
optical path difference, 778–779
probe design/assembly, 780–781
Positioning elements
micromotor, 155
stepping motor, 155
Position-sensitive detector (PSD), 122–123, 478, 486–487, 519, 596, 819
Primary aberrations, 88
coma, 91
distortion, 92
field curvature, 92
spherical aberration, 91
thin lens Seidel aberration
Abbe number, 94
biquadratic equations, 92
Fraunhofer doublet, 94
Hammer and Global optimization, 94
Steinheil doublet, 94
Prisms
Abbe, 104
vs. mirror, 99
Pechan, 103
Porro (see Porro prisms)
Production tolerances, 97–98, 862
Propagation delay method, 406
PSD, see Position-sensitive detector (PSD)
Pseudo-transmission interferometry, 753–755
Pulse height spectrum, 119–120
PZT, see Piezoelectric transducer (PZT)
Q
Quantitative birefringence imaging, 386
Quantum efficiency (QE), spectral response, 111–112
Quarter-wave film (QWF), 386
Quarter-wave plate (QWP), 380–381, 435, 442, 590, 592
R
Radiometry
optical range, 5
Lambert’s law and Lambertian sources, 10–11
light source (see Light sources)
lumens to watts conversion, 15–16
radiance, 9
radiant efficiency, 8
radiant exitance, 8
radiant intensity, 8
watts to lumens conversion, 13–15
RAE, see Rotating-analyzer ellipsometry (RAE)
Rayleigh–Gans approximation, 358
Red, green, and blue (RGB) wavelengths, 663–665
Refractive design, 655
Region of interest (ROI), 419–420
Relay lenses, 104
Resonant-cavity LEDs (RCLEDs), 52
Right circularly polarized (RCP), 374–375
Rodenstock Model RM 600 3-D/C, 483–484
Rotating-analyzer ellipsometry (RAE)
Fourier coefficients, 710
light intensity, 710
normalized light intensity, 710–711
Rugate filter, see Band-stop filter
S
Sampling moiré method
rotating tire, 3D shape measurement, 296
spatial phase-shifting methods, 295
specified camera system, 295
strain distribution measurement, 296–297
SBLEDs, see Superbright LEDs (SBLEDs)
Scanning near-field optical microscope (SNOM), 389, 394–397
Scanning probe microscope (SPM), 389, 399
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 389
Scientific CMOS (sCMOS), 128–129
SD-OCT, see Spectral-domain OCT (SD-OCT)
Semiconductor sensors, 108, 113–114, 121
Sénarmont compensator, 381–382
Serrodyne sweep method, 447
SFF sensor, see Shape from focus (SFF) sensor
intensity distribution
height-dependent, 280
vs. phase, 282
sinusoidal grating, 280
3D profile measurement, 278
frequency sweeping method (see frequency sweeping method)
phase-shifting method (see Phase-shifting method)
Shape from focus (SFF) sensor, 491–494, 847–849
Shear force method, 393
Shear plate interferometer, 210–211
Short-wave pass filter, 731–732
Shutter array, 148
Signal processing technique, 353
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 111, 254, 608–609
Silicon photomultiplier (Si-PM), see Multi-pixel photon counter (MPPC)
Single-mode-type optical fiber, 147
Single photogrammetry, 556–557
Single-wavelength ellipsometry
air/thin layer/c-Si structure, 718
mathematical inversion, 720–722
spectroscopic ellipsometry, 718
SLDs, see Superluminescent diodes (SLDs)
Solid immersion lens (SIL) system, 398, 400
Solid mechanics
digital holography
convolution method, 599
Fresnel transform method, 599–600
object beam, 597
quantitative amplitude and phase, 600
digital image correlation
external forces, 584
low birefringence polariscope
four-step phase-shifting method, 590–591
Jones’ vector, 590
LC polarization rotator (see Liquid crystal (LC) polarization rotator)
principal stresses, 589
Mohr’s circle, 584
optical diffraction strain sensor
one-dimensional grating diffraction, 594–595
residual strain measurement, 587–588
stress components, 584
Sonoluminescence, 33
Spatial light modulator (SLM), 145
Spatial phase shifting (SPS), 260–261
Spatial/spatial frequency filter, 143–144
Speckle methods
advantages, 250
CCD and image processing system, 249
DSPI (see Digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI))
speckle interferometry
in-plane displacement measurement, 253–255, 259
object deformation, 252
out-of-plane displacement measurement, 252–253
speckle pattern, 249
speckle shear interferometry/shearography, 255
curvature measurement, 256–257
slope measurement, 255–256, 259
Spectral-domain OCT (SD-OCT), 771–772, 777–778
Spectral luminous efficiency function, 5
Spectral power distribution, 13, 23, 42, 44, 56
Spheres interferometer, 410
Spherical aberration, 91, 203, 212, 220
SS-OCT, see Swept-source OCT (SS-OCT)
Step-index-type optical fibers, 146–147
Stepping motor, 155
Stereo photogrammetry, 557–558, 560–562
Stereoscopic particle image velocimetry (SPIV) method
axial-fan and measurement planes, 618–619
Stock tools, 97
Stokes parameter
Stokes polarimeter
aerosol remote sensing, 634
laboratory point-measurement, 634–636
light polarization, 629
normalized Stokes parameters, chopper wheel
spin rate, 638
parameters, 629
spectroscopic polarimetry
leaf circular polarization, 644–645
photosynthetic microbes, 642
transmissive/reflective mode, 642–643
vector, 629
Straightness measurement
angle instruments
angle interferometer, 459
electronic levels, 458
definition, 452
geometrical measurements, 451
integration of slope, 453
machine axis, 460
mechanical datum
error separation, reversal measurement, 456–457
experimental result, 457
optical beam
optical alignment systems, 453–454
straightness interferometer, 455
reversal technique, 453
rotational error measurement, machine axis, 460
straight datum, 453
traceability, 452
Strain gauge method, 351
Strain measurement
grating diffraction, 351
residual plastic deformation, 587–588
Stress mapping
CaF2, 698
circular polariscope, 692
plane polariscope, 690
plastic disk inspection, 701–702
Senarmont method, 692
Structure from motion (SFM), 563, 576
Sub-pixel technique, 352
high-speed pulsed LED light generator, 64
photovoltaic effect, 60
solar cell, 62
translator, 63
Superluminescent diodes (SLDs), 52–53, 770–772, 779
Superluminescent LEDs (SLEDs), 58–60
Surface-emitting LEDs, 51–52, 80
Swept-source OCT (SS-OCT), 772, 777
T
Tauc–Lorentz model, 715–716, 721–722
TD-OCT, see Time-domain OCT (TD-OCT)
Temperature measurements, 417, 423–424
Temporal phase shifting (TPS), 259–261
Thermocouples, 423
Thick film (KF) algorithm
calculation procedure, 746–747
film thickness profile, 755–757
SP-500F film profiler, 747
Thin-film flip chip light-emitting diode (TFFC) LED, 58
Three-dimensional profilometry (3D profilometry)
classification, 476
full-field measurement
pattern projection (see Pattern projection method)
shape from focus method, 491–494
historical background
measuring capsule unit, 478–479
stereographic method, 477
point-wise technique
chromatic confocal imaging, 490–491
coaxial confocal microscopic method, 486–487
conoscopic holography method, 489
contrast detection method, 486–489
focus-error detection (see Focus-error detection method)
intensity detection method, 480–481
stand-off-distance, 476
Three-dimensional (3D) shape measurement
accuracy, 532
applications, 518
CAD data comparison, 524
calibration, 523
camera model, 523
CCD sensors, 523
component shape measurement, 525–526
direct shape measurement, 530–531
discontinuity ambiguity, 523–524
full-field measurement, 530
global and local coordinate system, 521–522
image data patching, 524
interferometry, 520
laser scanning, 519
laser tracking system, 520
Moiré method, 519
photogrammetry, 520
real-time computing, 530
shading problem, 531
speckle pattern sampling, 519–520
structured light method, 521
system calibration and optimization, 532
terminology, 531
360° shape, 521
time-of-flight method, 518
vehicle shape measurement, 527
vibration, 528
Three wavelength interference color analysis
ACOS algorithm
estimated thickness profile, 764–765
phase estimation, 761
experimental analysis
Davidon–Fletcher–Powell method, 764
spectral transmittance, 762–763
GMFT method
initial estimates, 760
necessary condition, 760
synthesized color chart, 758–759
Time-delayed integration (TDI), 130–131
Time-domain OCT (TD-OCT), 772, 777–779
Toolmaker’s microscope method, 349
Total internal reflection (TIR)
critical angle, 181
prisms, 95
reflected wave
phase relation, reflected and incident waves, 182–183
relative phase difference, 183
Transistor–transistor logic (TTL), 440
Transmission film (TF) algorithm
film thickness profile, 755–757
measured vs. nominal values, 754–755
polyester films, 754
Transverse spatial coherence, 77–78
Triangle irregular network (TIN) model, 562–563, 565
Triangle type optical benches, 150
Triboluminescence, 35
temperature dependence and frequency, 333–334
transient characteristics, 332
Turning point method (TPM), 734–735
TV holography (TVH), 257
Two-dimensional digital image correlation (2D DIC), 585–586
Two-modulator generalized ellipsometry (2-MGE), 645–647
Two-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy, 30
Two plus one phase-shifting algorithm, 502
Twyman–Green interferometer, 209
Fizeau interferometer, 409–410
Kösters–Zeiss interference comparator, 409–410
laser sources, 209
light sources, 411
Mach–Zender interferometer, 210
optics error correction, 412, 427
reference pathway, 408
shear plate interferometer, 210–211
U
Ultrasonic welding tool, 350
Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), 577–579
V
Vacuum interferometers, 443–444
Vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) ellipsometry, 712
van de Hulst approximation, 355–356
van de Hulst theory, 358
Vibration isolation system, 152–153
Video measuring machines
features of, 833
GRR validation method, 830–831
height measurement
image processing
image rectification, 843
ISO standard, 852
optical system
structural analysis
application software, 833, 835
illumination system, 833
optical component layout, 833–834
Visual simultaneous localization and mapping, 563
W
Wave equation, 165
Wave-front aberration, 88, 203
Wave fronts, 87–88, 165, 198–199
White light interferometer, 744–745, 769–771
X
Xenon arc lamps, 40
X-ray/gamma ray sensors
X-type optical benches, 150–151
Y
Yamaguchi–Hasunuma compensator, 385
Young’s slits, 204
Y-type optical benches, 150
Z
Zeeman laser, 434
Zernike/Buchdahl notations, 88