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by David Riordan, Mark A. Price, Ajoy Kumar Kundu
Conceptual Aircraft Design
Cover
Series Preface
Preface
Individual Acknowledgements By Ajoy Kumar Kundu
Teachers/Academic Supervisor/Instructors:
Heads of Establishments/Supervisors:
My Ex‐Students and Most of My Ex‐Colleagues (Both Shop‐Floor and Office)
Personal Observation:
By Mark A. Price
By David Riordan
List of Symbols and Abbreviations
Road Map of the Book
1 Objectives and Aims
2 The Arrangement
3 Suggested Route for Coursework
4 Project Assignment
5 Suggestions for the Class
References
Part I: Prerequisites
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 Brief Historical Background
1.3 Aircraft Evolution
1.4 Current Aircraft Design Trends for both Civil and Military Aircraft (the 1980s Onwards)
1.5 Future Trends
1.6 Forces and Drivers
1.7 Airworthiness Requirements
1.8 Current Aircraft Performance Analyses Levels
1.9 Aircraft Classification
1.10 Topics of Current Research Interest Related to Aircraft Design (Supersonic/Subsonic)
1.11 Cost Implications
1.12 The Classroom Learning Process
1.13 Units and Dimensions
1.14 Use of Semi‐Empirical Relations and Datasheets
1.15 The Atmosphere
References
2 Aircraft Familiarity, Aircraft Design Process, Market Study
2.1 Overview
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Aircraft Familiarisation
2.4 Typical Aircraft Design Process
2.5 Market Survey – Project Identification
2.6 Four Phases of Aircraft Design
2.7 Typical Task Breakdown in Each Phase
2.8 Aircraft Specifications for Three Civil Aircraft Case Studies
2.9 Military Market – Some Typical Military Aircraft Design Specifications
2.10 Airworthiness Requirements
2.11 Coursework Procedures – Market Survey
References
3 Aerodynamic Fundamentals, Definitions and Aerofoils
3.1 Overview
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Airflow Behaviour – Laminar and Turbulent
3.4 Flow Past an Aerofoil
3.5 Generation of Lift
3.6 Aircraft Motion, Forces and Moments
3.7 Definitions of Aerodynamic Parameters
3.8 Aerofoils
3.9 Reynolds Number and Surface Condition Effects on Aerofoils – Using NACA Aerofoil Test Data
3.10 Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre
3.11 Types of Stall
3.12 High‐Lift Devices
3.13 Flow Regimes
3.14 Summary
3.15 Aerofoil Design and Manufacture
3.16 Aircraft Centre of Gravity, Centre of Pressure and Neutral Point
References
4 Wings
4.1 Overview
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Generic Wing Planform Shapes
4.4 Wing Position Relative to Fuselage
4.5 Structural Considerations
4.6 Wing Parameter Definitions
4.7 Spanwise Variation of Aerofoil t/c and Incidence
4.8 Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC)
4.9 Wing Aerodynamics
4.10 Wing Load
4.11 Compressibility Effect: Wing Sweep
4.12 Transonic Wings
4.13 Supersonic Wings
4.14 Additional Vortex Lift – LE Suction
4.15 High‐Lift Devices on the Wing – Flaps and Slats
4.16 Additional Surfaces on the Wing
4.17 The Square‐Cube Law
4.18 Influence of Wing Area and Span on Aerodynamics
4.19 Summary of Wing Design
References
5 Bodies – Fuselages, Nacelle Pods, Intakes and the Associated Systems
5.1 Overview
5.2 Introduction
CIVIL AIRCRAFT
5.3 Fuselage Geometry – Civil Aircraft
5.4 Fuselage Closures – Civil Aircraft
5.5 Fuselage Fineness Ratio (FR)
5.6 Fuselage Cross‐Sectional Geometry – Civil Aircraft
5.7 Fuselage Abreast Seating – Civil Aircraft
5.8 Cabin Seat Layout
5.9 Fuselage Layout
5.10 Fuselage Aerodynamic Considerations
5.11 Fuselage Pitching Moment
5.12 Nacelle Pod – Civil Aircraft
5.13 Exhaust Nozzles – Civil Aircraft
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
5.14 Fuselage Geometry – Military Aircraft
5.15 Pilot Cockpit/Flight Deck – Military Aircraft
5.16 Engine Installation – Military Aircraft
References
6 Empennage and Other Planar Surfaces
6.1 Overview
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Terminologies and Definitions of Empennage
6.4 Empennage Mount and Types
6.5 Different Kinds of Empennage Design
6.6 Empennage Tail Arm
6.7 Empennage Aerodynamics
6.8 Aircraft Control System
6.9 Aircraft Control Surfaces and Trim Tabs
6.10 Empennage Design
6.11 Other Planar Surfaces
References
7 Aircraft Statistics, Configuration Choices and Layout
7.1 Overview
7.2 Introduction
CIVIL AIRCRAFT
7.3 Civil Aircraft Mission (Payload Range)
7.4 Civil Subsonic Jet Aircraft Statistics (Sizing Parameters)
7.5 Internal Arrangements of Fuselage – Civil Aircraft
7.6 Some Interesting Aircraft Configurations – Civil Aircraft
7.7 Summary of Civil Aircraft Design Choices
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
7.8 Military Aircraft: Detailed Classification, Evolutionary Pattern and Mission Profile
7.9 Military Aircraft Mission
7.10 Military Aircraft Statistics (Regression Analysis)
7.11 Military Aircraft Component Geometries
7.12 Miscellaneous Comments
7.13 Summary of Military Aircraft Design Choices
References
Part II: Aircraft Design
8 Configuring Aircraft – Concept Definition
8.1 Overview
8.2 Introduction
CIVIL AIRCRAFT
8.3 Prerequisites to Initiate Conceptual Design of Civil Aircraft
8.4 Fuselage Design
8.5 Wing Design
8.6 Empennage Design
8.7 Nacelle and Pylon Design
8.8 Undercarriage
8.9 Worked‐Out Example: Configuring a Bizjet Class Aircraft
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
8.10 Prerequisite to Initiate Military (Combat/Trainer) Aircraft Design
8.11 Fuselage Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.12 Wing Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.13 Empennage Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.14 Engine/Intake/Nozzle (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.15 Undercarriage (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.16 Worked‐Out Example – Configuring Military AJT Class Aircraft
8.17 Turboprop Trainer Aircraft (TPT)
References
9 Undercarriage
9.1 Overview
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Types of Undercarriage
9.4 Undercarriage Description
9.5 Undercarriage Nomenclature and Definitions
9.6 Undercarriage Retraction and Stowage
9.7 Undercarriage Design Drivers and Considerations
9.8 Tyre Friction with the Ground: Rolling and Braking Friction Coefficient
9.9 Load on Wheels and Shock Absorbers
9.10 Energy Absorbed
9.11 Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)
9.12 Runway Pavement
9.13 Airfield/Runway Strength and Aircraft Operating Compatibility
9.14 Wheels and Tyres
9.15 Tyre Nomenclature, Classification, Loading and Selection
9.16 Configuring Undercarriage Layout and Positioning
9.17 Worked‐Out Examples
9.18 Discussion and Miscellaneous Considerations
References
10 Aircraft Weight and Centre of Gravity Estimation
10.1 Overview
10.2 Introduction
10.3 The Weight Drivers
10.4 Aircraft Mass (Weight) Breakdown
10.5 Aircraft CG and Neutral Point Positions
10.6 Aircraft Component Groups
10.7 Aircraft Component Mass Estimation
10.8 Mass Fraction Method – Civil Aircraft
10.9 Graphical Method – Civil Aircraft
10.10 Semi‐Empirical Equation Method (Statistical)
10.11 Centre of Gravity Determination
10.12 Worked‐Out Example – Bizjet Aircraft
10.13 Mass Fraction Method – Military Aircraft
10.14 Graphical Method to Predict Aircraft Component Weight – Military Aircraft
10.15 Semi‐Empirical Equations Method (Statistical) – Military Aircraft
10.16 CG Determination – Military Aircraft
10.17 Classroom Example of Military AJT/CAS Aircraft Mass Estimation
10.18 AJT Mass Estimation and CG Location
10.19 Classroom Example of a Turboprop Trainer (TPT) Aircraft and COIN Variant Weight Estimation
10.20 Classroom Worked‐Out TPT Mass Estimation and CG Location
10.21 Summary of Concept Definition
References
11 Aircraft Drag
11.1 Overview
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Parasite Drag Definition
11.4 Aircraft Drag Breakdown (Subsonic)
11.5 Understanding Drag Polar
11.6 Aircraft Drag Formulation
11.7 Aircraft Drag Estimation Methodology (Subsonic)
11.8 Minimum Parasite Drag Estimation Methodology
11.9 Semi‐Empirical Relations to Estimate Aircraft‐Component Parasite Drag
11.10 Notes on Excrescence Drag Resulting from Surface Imperfections
11.11 Minimum Parasite Drag
11.12 ΔC Dp Estimation
11.13 Subsonic Wave Drag
11.14 Total Aircraft Drag
11.15 Low‐Speed Aircraft Drag at Takeoff and Landing
11.16 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft Drag
11.17 Military Aircraft Drag
11.18 Supersonic Drag
11.19 Coursework Example – Civil Bizjet Aircraft
11.20 Classroom Example – Subsonic Military Aircraft (Advanced Jet Trainer – AJT)
11.21 Classroom Example – Turboprop Trainer (TPT)
11.22 Classroom Example – Supersonic Military Aircraft
11.23 Drag Comparison
11.24 Some Concluding Remarks
References
12 Aircraft Power Plant and Integration
12.1 Overview
12.2 Background
12.3 Definitions
12.4 Introduction – Air‐Breathing Aircraft Engine Types
12.5 Simplified Representation of a Gas Turbine (Brayton/Joule) Cycle
12.6 Formulation/Theory – Isentropic Case (Trend Analysis)
12.7 Engine Integration to Aircraft – Installation Effects
12.8 Intake/Nozzle Design
12.9 Exhaust Nozzle and Thrust Reverser (TR)
12.10 Propeller
12.11 Propeller Theory
12.12 Propeller Performance – Use of Charts, Practical Engineering Applications
References
13 Aircraft Power Plant Performance
13.1 Overview
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data – Civil Aircraft
13.4 Installed Engine Performance Data of Matched Engines to Coursework Aircraft
13.5 Installed Turboprop Performance Data
13.6 Piston Engine
13.7 Engine Performance Grid
13.8 Some Turbofan Data (OPR = Overall Pressure Ratio)
References
14 Aircraft Sizing, Engine Matching and Variant Derivatives
14.1 Overview
14.2 Introduction
14.3 Theory
14.4 Coursework Exercise – Civil Aircraft Design (Bizjet)
14.5 Sizing Analysis – Civil Aircraft (Bizjet)
14.6 Coursework Exercise – Military Aircraft (AJT)
14.7 Sizing Analysis – Military Aircraft (AJT)
14.8 Aircraft Sizing Studies and Sensitivity Analyses
14.9 Discussion
References
15 Aircraft Performance
15.1 Overview
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Takeoff Performance
15.4 Landing Performance
15.5 Climb Performance
15.6 Descent Performance
15.7 Checking of the Initial Maximum Cruise Speed Capability
15.8 Payload‐Range Capability – Derivation of Range Equations
15.9 In Horizontal Plane (Yaw Plane) – Sustained Coordinated Turn
15.10 Aircraft Performance Substantiation – Worked‐Out Classroom Examples – Bizjet
15.11 Aircraft Performance Substantiation – Military AJT
15.12 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft – TPT (Parabolic Drag Polar)
15.13 Summarised Discussion of the Design
References
16 Aircraft Cost Considerations
16.1 Overview
16.2 Introduction
16.3 Aircraft Cost and Operational Cost
16.4 Rapid Cost Modelling
16.5 Aircraft Direct Operating Cost (DOC)
16.5.2 Aircraft Performance Management
References
Part III: Further Design Considerations
17 Aircraft Load
17.1 Overview
17.2 Introduction
17.3 Flight Manoeuvres
17.4 Aircraft Loads
17.5 Theory and Definitions
17.6 Limits – Load and Speeds
17.7 V‐n Diagram
17.8 Gust Envelope
References
18 Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft Design
18.1 Overview
18.2 Introduction
18.3 Static and Dynamic Stability
18.4 Theory
18.5 Current Statistical Trends for Horizontal and Vertical Tail Coefficients
18.6 Stick Force – Aircraft Control Surfaces and Trim Tabs
18.7 Inherent Aircraft Motions as Characteristics of Design
18.8 Design Considerations for Stability – Civil Aircraft
18.9 Military Aircraft – Non‐Linear Effects
18.10 Active Control Technology (ACT) – Fly‐by‐Wire (FBW)
18.11 Summary of Design Considerations for Stability
References
19 Materials and Structures
19.1 Overview
19.2 Introduction
19.3 Function of Structure – Loading
19.4 Basic Definitions – Structures
19.5 From Structure to Material
19.6 Basic Definitions – Materials
19.7 Material Properties
19.8 Considerations with Respect to Design
19.9 Structural Configuration
19.10 Materials – General Considerations
19.11 Metals
19.12 Wood and Fabric
19.13 Composite Materials
19.14 Structural Configurations
19.15 Rules of Thumb and Concept Checks
19.16 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)/Finite Element Method (FEM)
References
20 Aircraft Manufacturing Considerations
20.1 Overview
20.2 Introduction
20.3 Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFM/A)
20.4 Manufacturing Practices
20.5 Six‐Sigma Concept
20.6 Tolerance Relaxation at the Wetted Surface
20.7 Reliability and Maintainability (R&M)
20.8 The Design Considerations
20.9 ‘Design for Customer’ (A Figure of Merit)
20.10 Digital Manufacturing Process Management
References
21 Miscellaneous Design Considerations
21.1 Overview
21.2 Introduction
21.3 History of FAA – the Role of Regulation
21.4 Flight Test
21.5 Contribution by the Ground Effect on Takeoff
21.6 Aircraft Environmental Issues
21.7 Flying in Adverse Environments
21.8 Military Aircraft Flying Hazards
21.9 End‐of‐Life Disposal
21.10 Extended Range Twin‐Engine Operation (ETOP)
21.11 Flight and Human Physiology
21.12 Some Emerging Scenarios
References
22 Aircraft Systems
22.1 Overview
22.2 Introduction
22.3 Environmental Issues (Noise and Engine Emission)
22.4 Safety Issues
22.5 Aircraft Flight Deck (Cockpit) Layout
22.6 Aircraft Systems
22.7 Flying in Adverse Environments and Passenger Utility
22.8 Military Aircraft Survivability
References
23 Computational Fluid Dynamics
23.1 Overview
23.2 Introduction
23.3 Current Status
23.4 Approach Road to CFD Analyses
23.5 Some Case Studies
23.6 Hierarchy of CFD Simulation Methods
23.7 Summary of Discussions
References
24 Electric Aircraft⋆
24.1 Overview
24.2 Introduction
24.3 Energy Storage
24.4 Prime Mover – Motors
24.5 Electric Powered Aircraft Power Train
24.6 Hybrid Electric Aircraft (HEA)
24.7 Distributed Electric Propulsion (DEP)
24.8 Electric Aircraft Related Theory/Analyses
24.9 Electric Powered Aircraft Sizing
24.10 Discussion
24.11 Worked‐Out Example
References
Appendix A: Conversions and Important Equations
Appendix B: International Standard Atmosphere Table Data from Hydrostatic Equations
Appendix C: Fundamental Equations (See Table of Contents for Symbols and Nomenclature.)
C.1. Kinetics
C.2 Thermodynamics
Supersonic Aerodynamics
C.4 Normal Shock
C.5 Oblique Shock
C.6 Supersonic Flow Past a 2D Wedge
C.7 Supersonic Flow Past 3D Cone
C.8 Incompressible Low Speed Wind Tunnel (Open Circuit)
Appendix D: Some Case Studies – Aircraft Data
D.1. Airbus320 Class Aircraft
D.2. Drag Computation
D.3a. SUGGESTED EXERCICES FOR THE READERS
D.3. The Belfast (B100) – A Fokker F100 Class Aircraft
D.4. The AK4 (4‐Place Utility Aircraft) – Retractable Undercarriage
Appendix E: Aerofoil Data
Data Courtesy of I. R. Abbott and A. E. Von Doenhoff, Theory of Wing Sections.
Appendix F: Wheels and Tyres
F.1. Glossary – Bias Tyres
F.2. Glossary – Radial Bias Tyres
F.3. Tyre Terminology
F.4. Typical Tyre Data
Index
End User License Agreement
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Prev
Previous Chapter
Cover
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Next Chapter
Table of Contents
Cover
Series Preface
Preface
Individual Acknowledgements By Ajoy Kumar Kundu
Teachers/Academic Supervisor/Instructors:
Heads of Establishments/Supervisors:
My Ex‐Students and Most of My Ex‐Colleagues (Both Shop‐Floor and Office)
Personal Observation:
By Mark A. Price
By David Riordan
List of Symbols and Abbreviations
Road Map of the Book
1 Objectives and Aims
2 The Arrangement
3 Suggested Route for Coursework
4 Project Assignment
5 Suggestions for the Class
References
Part I: Prerequisites
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
1.2 Brief Historical Background
1.3 Aircraft Evolution
1.4 Current Aircraft Design Trends for both Civil and Military Aircraft (the 1980s Onwards)
1.5 Future Trends
1.6 Forces and Drivers
1.7 Airworthiness Requirements
1.8 Current Aircraft Performance Analyses Levels
1.9 Aircraft Classification
1.10 Topics of Current Research Interest Related to Aircraft Design (Supersonic/Subsonic)
1.11 Cost Implications
1.12 The Classroom Learning Process
1.13 Units and Dimensions
1.14 Use of Semi‐Empirical Relations and Datasheets
1.15 The Atmosphere
References
2 Aircraft Familiarity, Aircraft Design Process, Market Study
2.1 Overview
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Aircraft Familiarisation
2.4 Typical Aircraft Design Process
2.5 Market Survey – Project Identification
2.6 Four Phases of Aircraft Design
2.7 Typical Task Breakdown in Each Phase
2.8 Aircraft Specifications for Three Civil Aircraft Case Studies
2.9 Military Market – Some Typical Military Aircraft Design Specifications
2.10 Airworthiness Requirements
2.11 Coursework Procedures – Market Survey
References
3 Aerodynamic Fundamentals, Definitions and Aerofoils
3.1 Overview
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Airflow Behaviour – Laminar and Turbulent
3.4 Flow Past an Aerofoil
3.5 Generation of Lift
3.6 Aircraft Motion, Forces and Moments
3.7 Definitions of Aerodynamic Parameters
3.8 Aerofoils
3.9 Reynolds Number and Surface Condition Effects on Aerofoils – Using NACA Aerofoil Test Data
3.10 Centre of Pressure and Aerodynamic Centre
3.11 Types of Stall
3.12 High‐Lift Devices
3.13 Flow Regimes
3.14 Summary
3.15 Aerofoil Design and Manufacture
3.16 Aircraft Centre of Gravity, Centre of Pressure and Neutral Point
References
4 Wings
4.1 Overview
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Generic Wing Planform Shapes
4.4 Wing Position Relative to Fuselage
4.5 Structural Considerations
4.6 Wing Parameter Definitions
4.7 Spanwise Variation of Aerofoil
t/c
and Incidence
4.8 Mean Aerodynamic Chord (
MAC
)
4.9 Wing Aerodynamics
4.10 Wing Load
4.11 Compressibility Effect: Wing Sweep
4.12 Transonic Wings
4.13 Supersonic Wings
4.14 Additional Vortex Lift – LE Suction
4.15 High‐Lift Devices on the Wing – Flaps and Slats
4.16 Additional Surfaces on the Wing
4.17 The Square‐Cube Law
4.18 Influence of Wing Area and Span on Aerodynamics
4.19 Summary of Wing Design
References
5 Bodies – Fuselages, Nacelle Pods, Intakes and the Associated Systems
5.1 Overview
5.2 Introduction
CIVIL AIRCRAFT
5.3 Fuselage Geometry – Civil Aircraft
5.4 Fuselage Closures – Civil Aircraft
5.5 Fuselage Fineness Ratio (FR)
5.6 Fuselage Cross‐Sectional Geometry – Civil Aircraft
5.7 Fuselage Abreast Seating – Civil Aircraft
5.8 Cabin Seat Layout
5.9 Fuselage Layout
5.10 Fuselage Aerodynamic Considerations
5.11 Fuselage Pitching Moment
5.12 Nacelle Pod – Civil Aircraft
5.13 Exhaust Nozzles – Civil Aircraft
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
5.14 Fuselage Geometry – Military Aircraft
5.15 Pilot Cockpit/Flight Deck – Military Aircraft
5.16 Engine Installation – Military Aircraft
References
6 Empennage and Other Planar Surfaces
6.1 Overview
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Terminologies and Definitions of Empennage
6.4 Empennage Mount and Types
6.5 Different Kinds of Empennage Design
6.6 Empennage Tail Arm
6.7 Empennage Aerodynamics
6.8 Aircraft Control System
6.9 Aircraft Control Surfaces and Trim Tabs
6.10 Empennage Design
6.11 Other Planar Surfaces
References
7 Aircraft Statistics, Configuration Choices and Layout
7.1 Overview
7.2 Introduction
CIVIL AIRCRAFT
7.3 Civil Aircraft Mission (Payload Range)
7.4 Civil Subsonic Jet Aircraft Statistics (Sizing Parameters)
7.5 Internal Arrangements of Fuselage – Civil Aircraft
7.6 Some Interesting Aircraft Configurations – Civil Aircraft
7.7 Summary of Civil Aircraft Design Choices
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
7.8 Military Aircraft: Detailed Classification, Evolutionary Pattern and Mission Profile
7.9 Military Aircraft Mission
7.10 Military Aircraft Statistics (Regression Analysis)
7.11 Military Aircraft Component Geometries
7.12 Miscellaneous Comments
7.13 Summary of Military Aircraft Design Choices
References
Part II: Aircraft Design
8 Configuring Aircraft – Concept Definition
8.1 Overview
8.2 Introduction
CIVIL AIRCRAFT
8.3 Prerequisites to Initiate Conceptual Design of Civil Aircraft
8.4 Fuselage Design
8.5 Wing Design
8.6 Empennage Design
8.7 Nacelle and Pylon Design
8.8 Undercarriage
8.9 Worked‐Out Example: Configuring a Bizjet Class Aircraft
MILITARY AIRCRAFT
8.10 Prerequisite to Initiate Military (Combat/Trainer) Aircraft Design
8.11 Fuselage Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.12 Wing Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.13 Empennage Design (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.14 Engine/Intake/Nozzle (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.15 Undercarriage (Military – Combat/Trainer Aircraft)
8.16 Worked‐Out Example – Configuring Military AJT Class Aircraft
8.17 Turboprop Trainer Aircraft (TPT)
References
9 Undercarriage
9.1 Overview
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Types of Undercarriage
9.4 Undercarriage Description
9.5 Undercarriage Nomenclature and Definitions
9.6 Undercarriage Retraction and Stowage
9.7 Undercarriage Design Drivers and Considerations
9.8 Tyre Friction with the Ground: Rolling and Braking Friction Coefficient
9.9 Load on Wheels and Shock Absorbers
9.10 Energy Absorbed
9.11 Equivalent Single Wheel Load (ESWL)
9.12 Runway Pavement
9.13 Airfield/Runway Strength and Aircraft Operating Compatibility
9.14 Wheels and Tyres
9.15 Tyre Nomenclature, Classification, Loading and Selection
9.16 Configuring Undercarriage Layout and Positioning
9.17 Worked‐Out Examples
9.18 Discussion and Miscellaneous Considerations
References
10 Aircraft Weight and Centre of Gravity Estimation
10.1 Overview
10.2 Introduction
10.3 The Weight Drivers
10.4 Aircraft Mass (Weight) Breakdown
10.5 Aircraft CG and Neutral Point Positions
10.6 Aircraft Component Groups
10.7 Aircraft Component Mass Estimation
10.8 Mass Fraction Method – Civil Aircraft
10.9 Graphical Method – Civil Aircraft
10.10 Semi‐Empirical Equation Method (Statistical)
10.11 Centre of Gravity Determination
10.12 Worked‐Out Example – Bizjet Aircraft
10.13 Mass Fraction Method – Military Aircraft
10.14 Graphical Method to Predict Aircraft Component Weight – Military Aircraft
10.15 Semi‐Empirical Equations Method (Statistical) – Military Aircraft
10.16 CG Determination – Military Aircraft
10.17 Classroom Example of Military AJT/CAS Aircraft Mass Estimation
10.18 AJT Mass Estimation and CG Location
10.19 Classroom Example of a Turboprop Trainer (TPT) Aircraft and COIN Variant Weight Estimation
10.20 Classroom Worked‐Out TPT Mass Estimation and CG Location
10.21 Summary of Concept Definition
References
11 Aircraft Drag
11.1 Overview
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Parasite Drag Definition
11.4 Aircraft Drag Breakdown (Subsonic)
11.5 Understanding Drag Polar
11.6 Aircraft Drag Formulation
11.7 Aircraft Drag Estimation Methodology (Subsonic)
11.8 Minimum Parasite Drag Estimation Methodology
11.9 Semi‐Empirical Relations to Estimate Aircraft‐Component Parasite Drag
11.10 Notes on Excrescence Drag Resulting from Surface Imperfections
11.11 Minimum Parasite Drag
11.12 Δ
C
Dp
Estimation
11.13 Subsonic Wave Drag
11.14 Total Aircraft Drag
11.15 Low‐Speed Aircraft Drag at Takeoff and Landing
11.16 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft Drag
11.17 Military Aircraft Drag
11.18 Supersonic Drag
11.19 Coursework Example – Civil Bizjet Aircraft
11.20 Classroom Example – Subsonic Military Aircraft (Advanced Jet Trainer – AJT)
11.21 Classroom Example – Turboprop Trainer (TPT)
11.22 Classroom Example – Supersonic Military Aircraft
11.23 Drag Comparison
11.24 Some Concluding Remarks
References
12 Aircraft Power Plant and Integration
12.1 Overview
12.2 Background
12.3 Definitions
12.4 Introduction – Air‐Breathing Aircraft Engine Types
12.5 Simplified Representation of a Gas Turbine (Brayton/Joule) Cycle
12.6 Formulation/Theory – Isentropic Case (Trend Analysis)
12.7 Engine Integration to Aircraft – Installation Effects
12.8 Intake/Nozzle Design
12.9 Exhaust Nozzle and Thrust Reverser (TR)
12.10 Propeller
12.11 Propeller Theory
12.12 Propeller Performance – Use of Charts, Practical Engineering Applications
References
13 Aircraft Power Plant Performance
13.1 Overview
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Uninstalled Turbofan Engine Performance Data – Civil Aircraft
13.4 Installed Engine Performance Data of Matched Engines to Coursework Aircraft
13.5 Installed Turboprop Performance Data
13.6 Piston Engine
13.7 Engine Performance Grid
13.8 Some Turbofan Data (OPR = Overall Pressure Ratio)
References
14 Aircraft Sizing, Engine Matching and Variant Derivatives
14.1 Overview
14.2 Introduction
14.3 Theory
14.4 Coursework Exercise – Civil Aircraft Design (Bizjet)
14.5 Sizing Analysis – Civil Aircraft (Bizjet)
14.6 Coursework Exercise – Military Aircraft (AJT)
14.7 Sizing Analysis – Military Aircraft (AJT)
14.8 Aircraft Sizing Studies and Sensitivity Analyses
14.9 Discussion
References
15 Aircraft Performance
15.1 Overview
15.2 Introduction
15.3 Takeoff Performance
15.4 Landing Performance
15.5 Climb Performance
15.6 Descent Performance
15.7 Checking of the Initial Maximum Cruise Speed Capability
15.8 Payload‐Range Capability – Derivation of Range Equations
15.9 In Horizontal Plane (Yaw Plane) – Sustained Coordinated Turn
15.10 Aircraft Performance Substantiation – Worked‐Out Classroom Examples – Bizjet
15.11 Aircraft Performance Substantiation – Military AJT
15.12 Propeller‐Driven Aircraft – TPT (Parabolic Drag Polar)
15.13 Summarised Discussion of the Design
References
16 Aircraft Cost Considerations
16.1 Overview
16.2 Introduction
16.3 Aircraft Cost and Operational Cost
16.4 Rapid Cost Modelling
16.5 Aircraft Direct Operating Cost (DOC)
16.5.2 Aircraft Performance Management
References
Part III: Further Design Considerations
17 Aircraft Load
17.1 Overview
17.2 Introduction
17.3 Flight Manoeuvres
17.4 Aircraft Loads
17.5 Theory and Definitions
17.6 Limits – Load and Speeds
17.7
V‐n
Diagram
17.8 Gust Envelope
References
18 Stability Considerations Affecting Aircraft Design
18.1 Overview
18.2 Introduction
18.3 Static and Dynamic Stability
18.4 Theory
18.5 Current Statistical Trends for Horizontal and Vertical Tail Coefficients
18.6 Stick Force – Aircraft Control Surfaces and Trim Tabs
18.7 Inherent Aircraft Motions as Characteristics of Design
18.8 Design Considerations for Stability – Civil Aircraft
18.9 Military Aircraft – Non‐Linear Effects
18.10 Active Control Technology (ACT) – Fly‐by‐Wire (FBW)
18.11 Summary of Design Considerations for Stability
References
19 Materials and Structures
19.1 Overview
19.2 Introduction
19.3 Function of Structure – Loading
19.4 Basic Definitions – Structures
19.5 From Structure to Material
19.6 Basic Definitions – Materials
19.7 Material Properties
19.8 Considerations with Respect to Design
19.9 Structural Configuration
19.10 Materials – General Considerations
19.11 Metals
19.12 Wood and Fabric
19.13 Composite Materials
19.14 Structural Configurations
19.15 Rules of Thumb and Concept Checks
19.16 Finite Element Analysis (FEA)/Finite Element Method (FEM)
References
20 Aircraft Manufacturing Considerations
20.1 Overview
20.2 Introduction
20.3 Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFM/A)
20.4 Manufacturing Practices
20.5 Six‐Sigma Concept
20.6 Tolerance Relaxation at the Wetted Surface
20.7 Reliability and Maintainability (R&M)
20.8 The Design Considerations
20.9 ‘Design for Customer’ (A Figure of Merit)
20.10 Digital Manufacturing Process Management
References
21 Miscellaneous Design Considerations
21.1 Overview
21.2 Introduction
21.3 History of FAA – the Role of Regulation
21.4 Flight Test
21.5 Contribution by the Ground Effect on Takeoff
21.6 Aircraft Environmental Issues
21.7 Flying in Adverse Environments
21.8 Military Aircraft Flying Hazards
21.9 End‐of‐Life Disposal
21.10 Extended Range Twin‐Engine Operation (ETOP)
21.11 Flight and Human Physiology
21.12 Some Emerging Scenarios
References
22 Aircraft Systems
22.1 Overview
22.2 Introduction
22.3 Environmental Issues (Noise and Engine Emission)
22.4 Safety Issues
22.5 Aircraft Flight Deck (Cockpit) Layout
22.6 Aircraft Systems
22.7 Flying in Adverse Environments and Passenger Utility
22.8 Military Aircraft Survivability
References
23 Computational Fluid Dynamics
23.1 Overview
23.2 Introduction
23.3 Current Status
23.4 Approach Road to CFD Analyses
23.5 Some Case Studies
23.6 Hierarchy of CFD Simulation Methods
23.7 Summary of Discussions
References
24 Electric Aircraft
⋆
24.1 Overview
24.2 Introduction
24.3 Energy Storage
24.4 Prime Mover – Motors
24.5 Electric Powered Aircraft Power Train
24.6 Hybrid Electric Aircraft (HEA)
24.7 Distributed Electric Propulsion (DEP)
24.8 Electric Aircraft Related Theory/Analyses
24.9 Electric Powered Aircraft Sizing
24.10 Discussion
24.11 Worked‐Out Example
References
Appendix A: Conversions and Important Equations
Appendix B: International Standard Atmosphere Table Data from Hydrostatic Equations
Appendix C: Fundamental Equations (See Table of Contents for Symbols and Nomenclature.)
C.1. Kinetics
C.2 Thermodynamics
Supersonic Aerodynamics
C.4 Normal Shock
C.5 Oblique Shock
C.6 Supersonic Flow Past a 2D Wedge
C.7 Supersonic Flow Past 3D Cone
C.8 Incompressible Low Speed Wind Tunnel (Open Circuit)
Appendix D: Some Case Studies – Aircraft Data
D.1. Airbus320 Class Aircraft
D.2. Drag Computation
D.3a. SUGGESTED EXERCICES FOR THE READERS
D.3. The Belfast (B100) – A Fokker F100 Class Aircraft
D.4. The AK4 (4‐Place Utility Aircraft) – Retractable Undercarriage
Appendix E: Aerofoil Data
Data Courtesy of I. R. Abbott and A. E. Von Doenhoff,
Theory of Wing Sections
.
Appendix F: Wheels and Tyres
F.1. Glossary – Bias Tyres
F.2. Glossary – Radial Bias Tyres
F.3. Tyre Terminology
F.4. Typical Tyre Data
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Performance summary of the aircraft in Figure 1.4.
Table 1.2 Aircraft classification.
Table 1.3 Comparison between civil and military design requirements.
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 Development costs up to certification included (cost at 2015 prices).
Table 2.2 Gantt chart for the activities of the small aircraft project. Figures ...
Table 2.3 FAR categories of airworthiness standards.
Table 2.4 Aircraft categories.
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Boundary layer thickness, δ, and local skin friction, Cf.
Table 3.2 Aircraft forces and moments in body frame, FB.
Table 3.3 Aircraft using an NACA aerofoil [8–11].
Table 3.4 Generalised summary (see Section 3.15 at the end of Chapter 4).
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Oswald's efficiency,
e
, (aspect ratio correction).
Table 4.2 Typical cruise Mach number for the mission range (Boeing terminology).
Table 4.3 Wing area and span comparison.
Table 4.4 Aircraft wing types (@ maximum design speed).
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Fuselage closure parameter (see Figure 4.16 – nomenclature at the bott...
Table 5.2 Fuselage front and aft closure ratios (no rear door).
Table 5.3 Number of passenger versus number of abreast seating and fineness rati...
Table 5.4 Fuselage seating dimensions – narrow body – all dimensions are in inch...
Table 5.5 Fuselage seating dimensions – wide body. Medium comfort level. Refer t...
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 MTOM per passenger versus range.
Table 7.2 Aircraft lift to drag ratio versus wing AR.
Table 7.3 Seat/aisle pitch and , inch (cm).
Table 7.4 Aircraft door types.
Table 7.5 Aircraft emergency door types.
Table 7.6 Door dimensions.
Table 7.7 Standard container sizes and capacity, dimensions in cm (IATA designat...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Typical aircraft aft‐most CG limits.
Table 8.2 Civil aircraft tail volume coefficients.
Table 8.3 Civil aircraft tail volume coefficients.
Table 8.4 Military trainer aircraft tail volume coefficients.
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Average braking coefficient,
μ
b
(may interpolate in between).
Table 9.2 Vertical speed.
Table 9.3 Load classification group.
Table 9.4 Aircraft weight to comply with LCN and corresponding tyre pressure.
Table 9.5 A380 data.
Table 9.6 Typical tyre pressures for a range of aircraft weights.
Table 9.7 Some production aircraft undercarriage and tyre data.
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Smaller aircraft mass fraction (typically less than around 19 passeng...
Table 10.2 Larger aircraft mass fraction (more than 19 passengers – three‐abreas...
Table 10.3 Aircraft component weights data.
Table 10.4 Minimum cabin crew number for passenger load.
Table 10.5 Typical values of component CG locations – civil aircraft.
Table 10.6 Determination of Bizjet CG location.
Table 10.7 Military aircraft mass fraction (see Section 10.6.1 for symbols).
Table 10.8 Typical values of component CG locations – military aircraft.
Table 10.9 Typical values of component CG locations – AJT.
Table 10.10 Typical values of component CG locations – TPT.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Typical
C
D
π
associated with raised or bubble‐type canopies.
Table 11.2 Typical
C
Dπ
associated with sharp wind shield type canopies (drag...
Table 11.3 Nacelle interference drag (per nacelle).
Table 11.4 Air‐conditioning drag.
Table 11.5 Trim drag (approximate).
Table 11.6 Bare single‐wheel drag with side ridge.
Table 11.7 One‐engine inoperative drag.
Table 11.8 External store drag.
Table 11.9 Summary of Bizjet component Reynolds Number and 2D basic skin frictio...
Table 11.10 Bizjet fuselage
ΔC
Ff
correction (3D and other shape effects).
Table 11.11 Bizjet wing
ΔC
Fw
correction (3D and other shape effects).
Table 11.12 Bizjet nacelle
ΔC
Fn
correction (3D and other shape effects).
Table 11.13 Bizjet parasite drag build‐up summary and
C
Dpmin
estimation.
Table 11.14 Bizjet Δ
C
Dp
estimation.
Table 11.15 Bizjet induced drag.
Table 11.16 Bizjet total aircraft drag coefficient,
C
D
.
Table 11.17 AJT total aircraft drag coefficient,
C
D
.
Table 11.18 Summary of TPT component Reynolds Number and 2D basic skin friction
C
Table 11.19 TPT parasite drag build‐up summary and
C
Dpmin
estimation.
Table 11.20 TPT total aircraft drag coefficient,
C
D
.
Table 11.21 Vigilante fuselage
ΔC
Ff
correction (3D and other shape effects)....
Table 11.22 Vigilante wing
ΔC
Fw
correction (3D and other shape effects).
Table 11.23 Vigilante parasite drag summary.
Table 11.24 Vigilante Δ
C
Dp
estimation.
Table 11.25 Vigilante induced drag.
Table 11.26 Vigilante supersonic drag summary.
Table 11.27 Vigilante total aircraft drag coefficient,
C
D
.
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Efficiencies of engine types.
Table 12.2 Progress in jet engines.
Table 12.3 Gas turbine station number.
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Turbofan parameters, BPR and specific thrust.
Table 13.2 Turboprop specific horse power for sizes (based on uninstalled SHP).
Table 13.3 Summary of installed thrust and fuel flow data per engine at the thre...
Table 13.4 Propeller installed thrust results.
Table 13.5 30 000 ft altitude (
ρ
= 0.00088 slug/ft
3
,
σ
= 0.37) – maxim...
Table 13.6 30 000 ft. altitude (
ρ
= 0.00088 slug/ft
3
,
σ
= 0.37) – maxi...
Table 13.7 Installed maximum climb thrust:
T
/engine – lb.
Table 13.8 Installed maximum climb : (
T
/δ)/engine – lb.
Table 13.9 Installed maximum cruise thrust:
T
/engine – lb.
Table 13.10 Installed maximum cruise thrust: (
T
/δ)/engine – lb.
Table 13.13 Civil engine data – STD day.
Table 13.14 Military engine sea level static data at takeoff – STD day (FPS unit...
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Bizjet takeoff sizing calculations.
Table 14.2 Bizjet climb sizing calculations (use Figure 11.2 for the drag polar)...
Table 14.3 Bizjet cruise sizing.
Table 14.4 Bizjet family variant summary
S
W
= 323
ft
2
.
Table 14.5 AJT takeoff sizing.
Table 14.6 AJT climb sizing calculations.
Table 14.7 AJT cruise sizing.
Table 14.8 Mach 0.5 (
V
= 558.25 ft s
−1
),
V
2
= 311 587.2 (ft s
−1
)
2
.
Table 14.10 Mach 0.6 (
V
= 669.9 ft s
−1
),
V
2
= 448 632 (ft s
−1
)
2
.
Table 14.11 AJT sensitivity study.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Civil aircraft takeoff segment requirements and status (FAR (14CFR) 2...
Table 15.2 Civil aircraft first segment speed schedule.
Table 15.3 Airworthiness regulations at takeoff.
Table 15.4 Civil aircraft takeoff speed schedule (FAR requirements).
Table 15.5 Airworthiness regulations at landing.
Table 15.6 FAA second segment climb gradient at a missed approach.
Table 15.7 The
value (dimensionless quantity) at constant climb speeds (quasi‐s...
Table 15.8 Bizjet performance parameters (takeoff/landing –
W/S
W
= 64 lb ft
−2
...
Table 15.9 Segment A – all‐engine operating from zero to
V
R
(see Figure 15.1).
Table 15.10 Segment B – the ground distance covered from
V
1
to
V
LO
for the 20° fl...
Table 15.12 Bizjet failure recognition distance (Segment D).
Table 15.13 Bizjet stopping distance (Segment E).
Table 15.14 Bizjet decision speed (Figure 15.8).
Table 15.15 Bizjet takeoff field length summary (Figure 15.8).
Table 15.16 First and second segment climb performance. Aircraft flap and underc...
Table 15.17 Bizjet range (step‐climb).
Table 15.18 AJT engine ratings – detailed segments (fuel and time computed in Ta...
Table 15.19 AJT distance,
S
W
= 17 m
2
(183 ft
2
).
Table 15.20 AJT mission fuel and time consumed.
Chapter 16
Table 16.1 Typical cost fractions of civil aircraft (two engines) at the shop‐fl...
Table 16.2 Typical cost fractions of combat aircraft (two engines) at the shop‐f...
Table 16.3 Life‐cycle cost (civil aircraft).
Table 16.4 Life‐cycle cost (military aircraft).
Table 16.5 Turbofan engine and nacelle data.
Table 16.6 Manufacturing cost components.
Table 16.7 Nose cowl build‐work breakdown (abbreviations expanded previously).
Table 16.8 Normalised indices for the eight cost drivers in Group I (* are the m...
Table 16.9 (Subscript ‘
T
’ stands for total weight of nose cowl and A and B stand...
Table 16.10 Man‐hours fraction required to fabricate parts (see Table 16.2 for t...
Table 16.11 Man‐hours fraction required to assemble.
Table 16.12 Non‐recurring costs.
Table 16.13 DOC components.
Table 16.14 Bizjet data for DOC estimation.
Table 16.15 Bizjet summary of DOC per trip (all figures in US Dollars).
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Typical permissible
g
‐load for civil aircraft.
Table 17.2 Typical
g
‐loads for classes of aircraft.
Table 17.3 FAR (14CFR) Part 217.341a Specified gust velocity (in EAS).
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Percentage mass of types of material used in the aircraft structure.
Table 19.2 Material Young's Modulus,
E
(GPa).
Table 19.3 Material density (Mg m
−3
).
Table 19.4 Properties of various types of material for comparison (typical value...
Table 19.5 Aluminium alloys (there are other types without numerical designation...
Table 19.6 Alloy properties – strength.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Sigma distribution of defects.
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 FAR Categories of Airworthiness standards.
Table 21.2 Aircraft categories.
Table 21.3 Typical aircraft flight test details.
Table 21.4 EPNdB limits (Make linear interpolation for in between aircraft masse...
Chapter 22
Table 22.1 Nacelle and turbofan technological challenges to reduce noise.
Table 22.2 Aircraft door types.
Table 22.3 Aircraft emergency door types.
Table 22.4 Door dimensions.
Table 22.5 HOTAS control buttons.
Table 22.6 Aircraft avionics items.
Table 22.7 Hydraulic driven subsystem (BAE RJ family).
Table 22.8 Stealth parameters.
Table 22.9 RCS values of combat aircraft.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 Battery* powered electric aircraft and conventional aircraft are comp...
Table 24.2 Bizjet‐electric takeoff sizing.
4
Table D.1 Reynolds number and 2D basic skin friction
C
Fbasic
. Reproduced with per...
Table D.2 Fuselage
ΔC
Ff
correction (3D and other shape effects). Reproduced ...
Table D.3 Wing
ΔC
Fw
correction (3D and other shape effects). Reproduced with...
Table D.4 V‐tail
ΔC
FVT
correction (3D and other shape effects). Reproduced w...
Table D.5 H‐tail
ΔC
FHT
correction (3D and other shape effects). Reproduced w...
Table D.6 Nacelle
ΔC
Fn
correction (3D and other shape effects). Reproduced w...
Table D.7 Pylon
ΔC
Fp
correction (3D and other shape effects). Reproduced wit...
Table D.8 Aircraft parasite drag build‐up summary and
C
Dpmin
estimation. Wing ref...
Table D.9 Δ
C
Dp
estimation. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Pr...
Table D.10 Induced drag. Reproduced with permission of Cambridge University Pres...
Table D.11 Total aircraft drag coefficient,
C
D
. Reproduced with permission of Cam...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Early concepts and reality of flying. (a) Leonardo's flying machine...
Figure 1.2 Heavier‐than‐air unpowered aircraft. (a) Cayley's kite plane and (b)...
Figure 1.3 Heavier‐than‐air powered aircraft. (a) The
Wright Flyer
and (b) Lang...
Figure 1.4 Very early aircraft (World War I). (a) Curtiss F4 (USA) , (b) Fokker...
Figure 1.5 Aircraft operational envelope. (a) Speed and (b) altitude.
Figure 1.6 Engine selections for the speed–altitude capabilities.
Figure 1.7 Engine performance. (a) Thrust to weight ratio and (b) specific fuel...
Figure 1.8 Current wide‐body large commercial transport aircraft. (a) Airbus380...
Figure 1.9 Current combat aircraft. (a) F117 Nighthawk. , (b) X‐35 (F35 experim...
Figure 1.10 Some well‐studied futuristic subsonic aircraft designs. (a) Blended...
Figure 1.11 Some well‐studied futuristic supersonic/hypersonic aircraft designs...
Figure 1.12 Lun class Ekranoplan (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lun‐class_ekran...
Figure 1.13 Future unmanned aircraft system (UAS). (a) Ikhana and (b) X47B Nort...
Figure 1.14 White Knight carrying
Space Ship Two
. Reproduced with permission of...
Figure 1.15 Associative features of ‘close’ and ‘open’ form education (modified...
Figure 1.16 CAD drawing examples. (a) Advanced Jet Trainer (AJT) and (b) F16 (C...
Figure 1.17 Hydrostatic equation and altitude effect. (a) Force diagram for the...
Figure 1.18 Standard atmosphere [14] (use Appendix B for accurate values). (a) ...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Lockheed 1011 blowout diagram.
Figure 2.2 ATR 72 turboprop aircraft cutaway diagram.
Figure 2.3 Schematic blown‐out diagram of Boeing F16 showing the internal struc...
Figure 2.4 Aircraft design process (see Chart 2.1).
Aircraft system.
Chart 2.2 The design drivers (in the free market economy, a design has to face ...
Chart 2.3 Customers of an aircraft manufacturer.
Chart 2.4 Four phases of the aircraft design and development process.
Chart 2.5 Multidisciplinary analysis (MDA) and optimisation (MDO) flow chart.
Figure 2.5 Resource deployments (manpower and finance).
Chart 2.6 Typical project time frame.
Chart 2.7 Top level definition (Phase I, conceptual study).
Chapter 3
Chart 3.1 All matters.
Figure 3.1 Boundary layer. (a) Magnified view of airflow over a rigid surface ...
Figure 3.2 Viscous effect of air on flat plate (
C
f
is defined next).
Figure 3.3 Air flow past a sphere. (a) Inviscid flow (
p
1
=
p
2
). (b) Viscous flo...
Figure 3.4 Air flow past an aerofoil.
Figure 3.5 Flow field around an aerofoil. (a) Streamline pattern over aerofoil....
Figure 3.6 Pressure field representations around an aerofoil. (a) Pressure fiel...
Figure 3.7 Lift generation on an aerofoil. (a) Mathematical representation by s...
Figure 3.8 Six degrees of freedom in body axes.
Figure 3.9 Equilibrium flight (
C
G
at ⊕) (Folland Gnat: the 1960s, United Kingdo...
Figure 3.10 Control deflection and sign convention.
Figure 3.11 Equilibrium flight.
Figure 3.12 Aerofoil section and definitions – NACA family.
Figure 3.13 Typical aerofoil characteristics.
Figure 3.14 Camber‐line distribution of the NACA 2315.
Figure 3.15 Comparing NACA 0015, NACA 4412 and NACA 4415 geometries.
Figure 3.16 Comparison of an NACA 23012 aerofoil with NACA 23112 reflex aerofoi...
Figure 3.17 Comparison of NACA65
2
415, NACA64
2
415 and NACA63
2
415 aerofoils.
Figure 3.18 The Seven Series NASA747A315 aerofoil.
Figure 3.19 Comparison between a peaky‐section aerofoil with a conventional aer...
Figure 3.20 Supercritical aerofoil NASA SC(2)‐0412.
Figure 3.21 Natural laminar flow aerofoil.
Figure 3.22 NASA/Langley/Whitcomb LS(2)‐0413 (GA(W)‐2) general aviation aerofoi...
Figure 3.23 Supersonic aerofoil.
Figure 3.24 Traced NACA 65‐410 aerofoil test data at three Re values [1]. (a) M...
Figure 3.25 Camber effect comparison.
Figure 3.26 Comparing three test aerofoils (NACA 65
2
‐015, NACA 65
2
‐215 and NACA...
Figure 3.27 Comparing NACA four‐digit aerofoils (NACA 1412, 2412, 2415, 2418 an...
Figure 3.28 Typical trends in thickness and camber effects – comparing NACA six...
Figure 3.29 Comparison of three NACA aerofoils [6].
Figure 3.30 Movement of centre of pressure with change in lift.
Figure 3.31 Aerodynamic centre invariant near the quarter chord (fractional cho...
Figure 3.32 Stall pattern.
Figure 3.33 High‐lift device.
Figure 3.34 Flap and slat lift characteristics.
Figure 3.35 High‐lift devices.
Figure 3.36 High‐lift devices and typical values of 2D
C
lmax
.
Figure 3.37 Aerofoil
C
p
distribution characteristics.
Figure 3.38 Flow regimes.
Figure 3.39 Wing sweep versus aerofoil thickness to chord ratio.
Figure 3.40 Transonic flow comparison (supercritical Whitcomb aerofoil).
Figure 3.41 Shock patterns over three types of supersonic aerofoil.
Figure 3.42 Flow over a supersonic aerofoil.
Figure 3.43 NACA series aerofoils.
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Generic wing planform shapes.
Figure 4.2 Examples of aircraft with different wing planform shapes. (a) Rectan...
Figure 4.3 Examples of military aircraft with different wing planform shapes. (...
Figure 4.4 Positioning of the wing with respect to the fuselage (all T‐tail con...
Figure 4.5 Wing dihedral and anhedral angles.
Figure 4.6 Wing profiles associated with dihedral and anhedral angles. (a) Jo D...
Figure 4.7 Typical choices for wing‐fuselage positions.
Figure 4.8 Wing reference area definition. (a) Fully tapered (USA). (b) Tapered...
Figure 4.9 Wing twist. (a) Geometric wing twist. (b) Aerodynamic wing twist.
Figure 4.10 Typical wing (A310) spanwise variation of aerofoil
t/c
and incidenc...
Figure 4.11 Stall progressing from the trailing edge as angle of attack is incr...
Figure 4.12 Trapezoidal wing planform – MAC.
Figure 4.13 Kinked wing – double tapezoidal wing.
Figure 4.14 Wing tip vortex.
Figure 4.15 Pressure, flow pattern and down‐wash effect of finite 3D wing.
Figure 4.16 Downwash angle and its distribution on elliptical wing platform.
Figure 4.17 Lift curve slope correction for aspect ratio.
Figure 4.18 Wing pitching moment.
Figure 4.19 Spanwise lift distribution.
Figure 4.20 Properties of an ellipse. (a) Ellipse. (b) In terms of wing‐based s...
Figure 4.21 Bizjet spanwise wing loading.
Figure 4.22 Bizjet wing ‐ elliptical.
Figure 4.23 Spanwise load distribution (no twist).
Figure 4.24 Spanwise load distribution (aspect ratio = 4).
Figure 4.25 Sweep of wing.
Figure 4.26 Sweep of wing. (a) Drag comparison (aerofoil specific). (b) Mach nu...
Figure 4.27 Thickness to chord ratio.
Figure 4.28Figure 4.28
M
CR,
versus
t/c
(redrawn from Shevell [12]). (a)
M
CR,
ver...
Figure 4.29 Variable sweep commercial‐transport aircraft operation.
Figure 4.30 Transonic wing – NASA SCW F8 test aircraft.
Figure 4.31 Supersonic wing. (top) Isolated wing. (a) Wing with
ε
<
μ
Figure 4.32 X‐15 Rocket powered aircraft. . (a) Mach 3.3 (
ε
<
μ
). (b)...
Figure 4.33 Additional vortex lift. (a) Additional vortex lift (half wing shown...
Figure 4.34 Flaps and slats on a wing.
Figure 4.35 High‐lift device evolution [17].
Figure 4.36 Single‐slotted Fowler flap.
Figure 4.37 Wing
C
Lmax
with flaps and slats.
Figure 4.38 Fowler flap extended. (a) Double slotted – spoiler deflected. (b) T...
Figure 4.39 Wing high‐lift devices.
Figure 4.40 Wing flow modifier and vortex generators: types of winglets (from N...
Figure 4.41 Leading edge flow modifier and vortex generators.
Figure 4.42 Torenbeek's comparison between the B47 and Vulcan.
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Transport aircraft fuselage cross‐section.
Figure 5.2 Military aircraft fuselage cross‐sections.
Figure 5.3 Generic fuselage shapes of civil aircraft. (a) Gradual closure. (b) ...
Figure 5.4 Military aircraft fuselage types. (a) Varying cross‐section (boat‐ta...
Figure 5.5 Fuselage geometrical parameters – Lengths associated with fuselages....
Figure 5.6 Front and aft‐end closure.
Figure 5.7 Front (nose cone) and aft‐end closure (not to scale – various source...
Figure 5.8 Abreast seating versus number of passengers (standard configuration)...
Figure 5.9 Fuselage cross‐section geometrical parameters.
Figure 5.10 Typical narrow body single‐aisle civil aircraft fuselage cross‐sect...
Figure 5.11 Typical wide‐body double‐aisle civil aircraft fuselage cross‐sectio...
Figure 5.12 Various options for futuristic aircraft fuselage cross‐sections.
Figure 5.13 Narrow body, single‐aisle fuselage layout (not to scale).
Figure 5.14 Wide‐body, double‐aisle fuselage layout (not to scale).
Figure 5.15 Area rule. (a) Transonic area rule. (b) Boeing transonic aircraft.
Figure 5.16 Fuselage moments factors. (a) Fuselage fineness correction factor. ...
Figure 5.17 Fuselage moments estimation.
Figure 5.18 Aircraft nacelle. (a) De Havilland Comet. (b) Bombardier CS‐100. Cr...
Figure 5.19 Sketch of a propeller driven engine nacelle pods. (a) Scoop intake ...
Figure 5.20 Typical nacelle positions. (a) Nose wheel spray. (b) Position of na...
Figure 5.21 Typical position of nacelle with respect to the wing. (a) Hondajet....
Figure 5.22 Fuselage mounted nacelle position.
Figure 5.23 Trijet centre engine.
Figure 5.24 Nacelle pod clearance from ground.
Figure 5.25 Type of thrust reversers.
Figure 5.26 TR efflux pattern (from [9]).
Figure 5.27 MIG29 type of combat aircraft (extracted from various sources – not...
Figure 5.28 Flight deck (cockpit) layout – military aircraft.
Figure 5.29 Installed engine in a combat aircraft.
Types of military intake configuration.
Figure 5.30 Subsonic combat aircraft intakes (various sources).
Figure 5.31 Supersonic combat aircraft intakes (various sources).
Figure 5.32 Splitter plate for boundary layer bleed (Eurofighter Typhoon). (a) ...
Figure 5.33 F16 modified with diverterless supersonic intake (DSI) for flight t...
Figure 5.34 Intake vortex suction and protection. (a) Ground water suck. (b) MI...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Typical empennage designs. (a) Conventional, (b) canard configurati...
Figure 6.2 (a) Horizontal tail and (b) vertical tail.
Figure 6.3 The dominant options for the wing, tail and nacelle positions. (a) L...
Types of empennage configurations.
Figure 6.4 Other types of civil aircraft empennage design option. (All figures ...
Figure 6.5 Ruddervator (Vee‐tail).
Figure 6.6 Geometric parameters for the tail volume coefficient.
Figure 6.7 Canard configurations. (a) Three‐surface canard (Piaggio P180 Avanti...
Figure 6.8 H‐tail aerodynamics.
Figure 6.9 Aircraft forces and moments (power‐off).
Figure 6.10 H‐tail sizing.
Figure 6.11 Direction stability (also see Section 18.3.2 for more explanation).
Figure 6.12 DATCOM graphs. (a) Empirical factor
K
N
versus side slip
C
Nβ
fo...
Figure 6.13 Tail contribution to stability.
Figure 6.14 Post stall moment (two typical civil aircraft examples).
Figure 6.15 Positioning of the horizontal tail – V‐tail shielding.
Figure 6.16 Wing wake on the H‐tail.
Figure 6.17 Wire‐pulley and push‐pull rod control system. (
Figure 6.18 Civil aircraft control surfaces.
Figure 6.19 Military aircraft control surfaces.
Figure 6.20 Aircraft control surfaces. (a) Wing control and (b) empennage contr...
Figure 6.21 Types of aerodynamic balancing of controls.
Figure 6.22 Bob‐weight and spring.
Figure 6.23 Dorsal and ventral fins.
Figure 6.24 Pylon for nacelle.
Figure 6.25 Speed brakes and dive brakes [13]. (
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Passengers versus range – statistics of 70 aircraft (Ref. [1–4]).
Figure 7.2 Number of passengers versus MTOM (high‐subsonic jet aircraft). (a) L...
Figure 7.3 OEM versus MTOM (high‐subsonic jet aircraft). (a) All types of aircr...
Figure 7.4 Maximum fuel load (full tank) versus MTOM (Ref. [2]).
Figure 7.5 Wing area,
S
W
, versus MTOM (Ref. [2]). (a) Small aircraft, (b) midra...
Figure 7.6 Wing geometry.
Figure 7.7 Civil aircraft wing planform shapes.
Figure 7.8 Statistics of tail volume coefficients.
Figure 7.9 Total sea‐level static thrust versus MTOM. (a) Small aircraft, (b) m...
Figure 7.10 Pilot cockpit.
Figure 7.11 Standard pilot seat.
Figure 7.12 Passenger seat pitch.
Figure 7.13 Passenger seat and aisle width.
Figure 7.14 Passenger facilities.
Figure 7.15 Passenger facilities. (a) Typical galleys with service trolley and ...
Figure 7.16 Standard containers. (a) Typical container shapes and (b) LD3 conta...
Figure 7.17 Options for conventional civil aircraft nacelle positions. (a) Two,...
Figure 7.18 Futuristic options for nacelle position. (a) Futuristic rear engine...
Figure 7.19 Chronology of fighter aircraft design evolution (USA). (a) 1950s–19...
Figure 7.20 Military aircraft wing planform shapes.
Figure 7.21 Typical multi‐role missions (Ref. [1]). (a) Air interdiction, (b) c...
Figure 7.22 Military aircraft payload range (no drop tank or refuelling). (a) M...
Figure 7.23 MTOM versus OEM.
Figure 7.24 MTOM versus fuel load.
Figure 7.25 MTOM versus wing area.
Figure 7.26 Aircraft weight versus total takeoff thrust. (a) Total thrust versu...
Figure 7.27 Military aircraft fuselage views (not to scale).
Figure 7.28 Fighter aircraft configurations. (a) One surface wing planform – tr...
Figure 7.29 Advanced jet trainer aircraft capable of close support combat. (a) ...
Figure 7.30 Empennage options. (a) SR71 twin tail – inclined, (b) X‐29 separate...
Figure 7.31 Options for engine positions of some older designs. (a) Twin fusela...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Possible changes (shaded area) in civil aircraft family derivatives...
Figure 8.2 Four candidate aircraft configurations.
Phase I, conceptual study: methodology for finalising civil aircraft configura...
Figure 8.3 Convertible fuselage.
Figure 8.4 Statistics of the Bizjet class of aircraft. (a) PAX versus MTOM and ...
Figure 8.5 Example of configuring the fuselage for the medium comfort level.
Figure 8.6 Fuselage lengths of the three variants.
Figure 8.7 Example of wing design.
Figure 8.8 Bizjet aircraft example of empennage sizing (baseline aircraft).
Figure 8.9 Bizjet nacelle design (baseline aircraft).
Figure 8.10 Three‐view drawing and 3D model of the Bizjet aircraft.
Methodology to freezing military aircraft configuration (Phase I, conceptual ...
Figure 8.11 Military trainer aircraft mass.
Figure 8.12 Military trainer aircraft. Wing area and engine size.
Figure 8.13 AJT fuselage layout.
Figure 8.14 AJT wing layout.
Figure 8.15 AJT tail arm (CG position guessed).
Figure 8.16 AJT intake layout.
Figure 8.17 AJT three‐view drawing and 3D model.
Figure 8.18 AJT and its CAS variant.
Figure 8.19 TPT statistics – (large scatter).
Figure 8.20 TPT aircraft fuselage layout.
Figure 8.21 TPT aircraft wing layout.
Figure 8.22 TPT aircraft tail arm.
Figure 8.23 Turboprop trainer aircraft (TPT).
Figure 8.24 Single‐seat COIN variant of TPT.
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Antanov 225 (Mriya) main undercarriage.
Chart 9.2 Three‐point undercarriage (fixed type).
Undercarriage types (land based).
Figure 9.2 Three‐point undercarriages. (a) Three‐point tricycle (Beagle Pup) ty...
Figure 9.3 Undercarriage strut and bogey types.
Figure 9.4 Dual undercarriage strut and tyre. (a) Nose gear. (b) Main gear.
Figure 9.5 Wheel gear arrangement. (Top) Wheel gear arrangement and (bottom) A3...
Figure 9.6 Undercarriage layout nomenclature.
Figure 9.7 Signs for rake angle and trail angle.
Figure 9.8 Wheel alignment.
Figure 9.9 Undercarriage retraction and stowage.
Figure 9.10 Undercarriage stowage space (Bizjet and AJT) and retraction.
Figure 9.11 Three possible wheel positions.
Figure 9.12 Positioning of main wheels and strut length.
Figure 9.13 Aircraft turn.
Figure 9.14 Ground friction coefficient.
Figure 9.15 Undercarriage as a
spring‐mass
system (oleo‐pneumatic).
Figure 9.16 Wheel load. (a) Static wheel load. (b) Nose wheel load due to braki...
Figure 9.17 Runway classification.
Figure 9.18 ESWL versus LCN.
Figure 9.19 Aircraft wheel types. (a) Split wheel assembly. (b) Demountable whe...
Figure 9.20 Bias ply (top) and radial ply (bottom) tyres.
Figure 9.21 Tyre designations.
Figure 9.22 Aircraft CG position relative to the undercarriage layout (nose whe...
Figure 9.23 Bizjet (large variant) undercarriage positions (CG position estimat...
Figure 9.24 AJT undercarriage positions (CG position estimated).
Figure 9.25 TPT undercarriage positions (CG position estimated).
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Aircraft weights breakdown.
Figure 10.2 Aircraft CG limits.
Figure 10.3 Aircraft CG limits travel – range of CG variations. (a) ‘Potato’ cu...
Figure 10.4 Aircraft CG position showing the stability margin.
Figure 10.5 Aircraft component weights in pounds – civil aircraft.
Figure 10.6 Aircraft component CG locations (see Table 10.5).
Figure 10.7 Military aircraft fuselage mass.
Figure 10.8 Military aircraft wing mass.
Figure 10.9 Turboprop trainer aircraft (TPT).
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Flat plate equivalent of drag.
Total aircraft drag breakdown.
Figure 11.2 Bizjet drag polar (see Section 11.18, Tables 11.13 and 11.16).
Figure 11.3 Bizjet Oswald's efficiency factor ‘
e
’ variation at 41 000 ft altitu...
Figure 11.4 Bizjet comparison example. (a) Analytical (parabolic) and semi‐empi...
Figure 11.5 Control volume (CV) approach to formulate aircraft drag: (a) 2D bod...
Figure 11.6 Canopy types for drag estimation.
Figure 11.7 Aerodynamic considerations for an isolated long‐duct nacelle drag.
Figure 11.8 Throttle dependent spillage drag (subsonic case shown).
Figure 11.9 Wing and fuselage‐mounted nacelle.
Figure 11.10 Typical Δ
C
Dp
and
C
Dw.
(a) Δ
C
Dp
. (b)
C
Dw
.
Figure 11.11 NACA 632‐118 aerofoil.
Figure 11.12 Flap drag.
Figure 11.13 Typical drag polar with high‐lift devices.
Figure 11.14 Drag polar with single‐slotted Fowler flap extended (undercarriage...
Figure 11.15 Bizjet aircraft‐component diagram. (a) A three‐view diagram of the...
Figure 11.16 Drag polar of Figure 11.2 plotted
C
L
2
versus
C
D
.
Figure 11.17 AJT drag polar (Section 11.20).
Figure 11.18 AJT and its CAS variant.
Figure 11.19 Turboprop trainer aircraft (TPT).
Figure 11.20 North American RA‐C5 Vigilante aircraft (very clean wing – no pylo...
Figure 11.21 Vigilante RA C5 fuselage cross‐section area distributions.
Figure 11.22 Vigilante RA C5 drag polar (not from industry).
Figure 11.23 Drag comparison.
Figure 11.24 Flat pate skin friction coefficients versus Reynolds number (turbu...
Figure 11.25 Corrections for laminarisation [3].
Figure 11.26 Supersonic compressibility drag [3].
Figure 11.27 Design‐lift coefficient [3].
Figure 11.28 Two‐dimensional drag divergence Mach number for supersonic aerofoi...
Figure 11.29 Design Mach number [3].
Figure 11.30 Supersonic wing compressibility drag [3].
Figure 11.31 Wing‐body zero lift interference drag [3].
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Modular concept of gas turbine design (the core module is also kno...
Classification of aircraft engines.
Figure 12.2 Application domains of various types of air‐breathing aircraft engi...
Figure 12.3 Engine performance. (a) Thrust to weight ratio and (b) specific fue...
Figure 12.4 Typical performance levels of various gas turbine engines. (a) Spec...
Figure 12.5 Sketch of a simple straight‐through turbojet (pod mounted turbojet ...
Figure 12.6 Turbofan engine. (a) Pratt and Whitney 2037 Turbofan (Credit: Fligh...
Figure 12.7 Afterburning engine – Volve‐Flygmotor RM8 (Credit: Flightglobal).
Figure 12.8 Aircraft turboprop engine. (a) General Electric CT7 (Credit: Flight...
Figure 12.9 Aircraft piston engine and the supercharged scheme.
Figure 12.10 Simple straight‐through jet. (a) Generic schematic diagram. (b) Id...
Figure 12.11 Real and Ideal Joule (Brayton) cycle comparison of a straight‐thro...
Figure 12.12 Control volume (CV) representation of straight‐through turbojet.
Figure 12.13 Where does the thrust act? [1].
Figure 12.14 Afterburning turbojet and its
T‐s
diagram (real cycle).
Figure 12.15 Installation effects.
Figure 12.16 Installed turbofan on an aircraft (Credit: Flightglobal).
Figure 12.17 Podded nacelle types (courtesy of Bombardier‐Aerospace Shorts).
Figure 12.18 Typical wing mounted turboprop installation [9]. (a) Scoop intake....
Figure 12.19 Typical turboprop installation parameters. (a) Wing mounted turbop...
Figure 12.20 Installed engine in a combat aircraft [9].
Figure 12.21 Subsonic intake airflow demand (valid both for civil and military ...
Figure 12.22 Shock Recovery Factor, RF.
Figure 12.23 Types of ideal supersonic intake demand conditions [6]. (The Schli...
Figure 12.24 Types of ideal supersonic intake demand mechanism [6].
Figure 12.25 Supersonic nozzle area adjustment and thrust vectoring.
Figure 12.26 Aircraft propeller.
Figure 12.27 Multi‐bladed aircraft propellers (the low noise transonic propelle...
Figure 12.28 Comparison of fixed pitch and constant speed variable pitch propel...
Figure 12.29 CV showing the stream tube of the actuator disc.
Figure 12.30 Static performance – Three bladed propeller chart – AF100 (for pis...
Figure 12.31 Four bladed propeller performance chart, AF180 (for high performan...
Figure 12.32 Limits of the integrated design
C
L
to avoid compressibility loss. ...
Figure 12.33 Engine power versus propeller diameter (extracted from [13]).
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Flat‐rated thrust at takeoff rating.
Figure 13.2 Uninstalled takeoff performance (≈BPR 4 ± 1). (Fuel flow rate is ne...
Figure 13.3 Uninstalled maximum climb rating (≈BPR 4 ± 1). (a) Non‐dimensional ...
Figure 13.4 Uninstalled maximum cruise rating (≈BPR 4 ± 1). (a) Non‐dimensional...
Figure 13.5 Uninstalled takeoff performance (≈BPR 6 ± 1).
Figure 13.6 Uninstalled maximum climb rating (≈BPR 6 ± 1). (a) Non‐dimensional ...
Figure 13.7 Uninstalled maximum cruise rating (≈BPR 6 ± 1). (a) Non‐dimensional...
Figure 13.8 Military engine with and without reheat (BPR = 0.75). Take 90% of m...
Figure 13.9 Uninstalled maximum climb rating (turboprop). (a) Shaft horse power...
Figure 13.10 Uninstalled maximum cruise rating (turboprop). (a) Shaft horse pow...
Figure 13.11 Installed takeoff performance per engine (≈
BPR
3–4).
Figure 13.12 Installed maximum climb performance per engine (≈ < BPR 4). (a) Th...
Figure 13.13 Installed maximum cruise performance per engine (≈ < BPR 4). (a) T...
Figure 13.14 Installed idle engine rating performance per engine (≈ < BPR 4). (...
Figure 13.15 Installed maximum rating – military turbofan (BPR = 0.75).
Figure 13.16 Takeoff thrust for the turboprop engine.
Figure 13.17 Thrust and fuel flow at maximum climb rating.
Figure 13.18 Thrust and fuel flow at maximum cruise rating.
Figure 13.19 Textron‐Lycoming IO‐360 series 180 HP piston engine (Courtesy of L...
Figure 13.20 Lycoming IO‐360 series fuel flow graph Courtesy of Textron‐Lycomin...
Figure 13.21 Engine grid – Bizjet (total of two engines). (read fuel flow value...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Sizing for takeoff.
Figure 14.2 Aircraft climb trajectory.
Figure 14.3 Aircraft sizing – civil aircraft.
Figure 14.4 Variant designs in the family of civil aircraft.
Figure 14.5 Aircraft sizing – AJT (military).
Figure 14.6 Variant designs in the family of military aircraft.
Figure 14.7 Typical
parametric study
of a mid‐sized aircraft (A320 class) (show...
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Takeoff, first and second segment climb (see Figure 15.3). (a) Tak...
Figure 15.2 Balanced field length consideration.
Figure 15.3 Takeoff, first, second, third and fourth segment climb (FAA).
Figure 15.4 Landing.
Figure 15.5 Generalised force diagram in pitch (vertical) plane – climb perform...
Figure 15.6 Aircraft descent force and velocity diagram.
Figure 15.7 Forces on an aircraft coordinated turn in the horizontal plane.
Figure 15.8 Bizjet takeoff.
Figure 15.9 Takeoff speed schedule – 20° flap.
Figure 15.10 Climb point performances. (a) Climb speed schedule and (b) rate of...
Figure 15.11 Integrated climb performances for the Bizjet (classroom example).
Figure 15.12 Specific range of the Bizjet (classroom example). (a) SR at 41 000...
Figure 15.13 Descent point performance. (a) Descend velocity schedule and (b) r...
Figure 15.14 Integrated descent performance for the Bizjet (classroom example).
Figure 15.15 Bizjet mission profile.
Figure 15.16 Bizjet payload‐range capability.
Figure 15.17 Normal training sortie profile (60 min). A – four turns and four s...
Figure 15.18 Typical combat profile. (a) A hi‐lo‐hi mission (longer distance) a...
Figure 15.19 AJT takeoff.
Figure 15.20 AJT climb performance.
Figure 15.21 AJT specific range.
Chapter 16
Figure 16.1 Levels of cost modelling.
Figure 16.2 Aircraft cost factors.
Figure 16.3 Nacelle components.
Figure 16.4 Cost versus tolerance.
Figure 16.5 Typical nacelle section.
Figure 16.6 DOC breakdown (@ 0.75 cents/US gallon).
Figure 16.7 Trip cost elements.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 Typical buffet boundary.
Figure 17.2 Equilibrium flight.
Figure 17.3 A typical
V‐n
diagram showing load and speed limits (pitch pl...
Figure 17.4 Bizjet speed limits.
Figure 17.5 Aircraft angles of attack in pitch plane manoeuvres (see text for t...
Figure 17.6 Effect of Mach number – experimental data [1].
Figure 17.7 Composite
V‐n
diagram (typical of the Boeing707 type – courte...
Chapter 18
Figure 18.1 Aircraft stability compared with a spring‐mass system. (a) Aircraf...
Figure 18.2 Stability in the pitch‐plane.
Figure 18.3 Longitudinal static stability – nose‐up gives +
α
and
C
m
.
Figure 18.4 Direction stability (see Section 18.4 for more explanation). (a) Si...
Figure 18.5 Lateral stability – rear view, right wing drop.
Figure 18.6 Lateral stability – fuselage contributions.
Figure 18.7 Effect of wing sweep on roll stability.
Figure 18.8 Vertical tail contribution to roll viewed from rear (modified from ...
Figure 18.9 Generalised force and moment in pitch‐plane.
Figure 18.10 Pitch stability.
Figure 18.11 Aircraft control surfaces. (a) Empennage control. (b) Wing control...
Figure 18.12 H‐tail control surfaces (simplified linkage diagram).
Figure 18.13 Short‐period oscillations and phugoid motion (figure modified from...
Figure 18.14 Spiral mode of motion showing divergence [6].
Figure 18.15 Dutch roll motion.
Figure 18.16 Aircraft modifications with additional surfaces – dorsal ventral.
Figure 18.17 Typical modern fighter aircraft.
Figure 18.18 Schematic diagram of FBW [7].
Figure 18.19 Comparison between a conventional and a CCV design [8].
Chapter 19
Figure 19.1 Composite material usage in B767.
Figure 19.2 Load types on rectangular prismatic bar.
Figure 19.3 Conceptualising the aircraft wing as a beam. Structurally the syste...
Figure 19.4 Like a beam, the fuselage with the passengers and payload provide t...
Figure 19.5 Torsional load on an aircraft.
Figure 19.6 Basic stress–strain curve for an aluminium alloy.
Figure 19.7 Basic stress and strain.
Figure 19.8 Material strength.
Figure 19.9 Material Properties [8, 9]. (a) Young's Modulus versus density. (b)...
Figure 19.10 Materials cost [8, 9].
Figure 19.11 Materials cost in bar chart form.
Figure 19.12 Materials selection – A380. Courtesy Airbus [11].
Figure 19.13 Showing cantilever beam and bending stress.
Figure 19.14 Showing two cross‐sections.
Figure 19.15 Torque on cylindrical solid shaft.
Figure 19.16 Non‐circular thin tube.
Figure 19.17 Buckling. (a) Column/beam buckling. (b) Plate buckling.
Figure 19.18 Comparison of typical aircraft material‐stress–strain relationship...
Figure 19.19 Fabric weave type. (a) Plain weave. (b) A 2 × 2 twill weave. (c) F...
Figure 19.20 Layers of composite fabric are bonded together with a polymer matr...
Figure 19.21 Honeycomb panel. (a) Honeycomb panel details. (b) Curved honeycomb...
Figure 19.22 Aircraft fuselage structure. (a) General fuselage structure. (b) C...
Figure 19.23 Pressurised cabin between two fuselage bulkheads.
Figure 19.24 Wing structure
Figure 19.25 Wing planform showing potential fuel storage area.
Figure 19.26 Spar types.
Figure 19.27 Idealised wing spar.
Figure 19.28 Wing Structure.
Figure 19.29 Fuselage Structure LD3 container in A300
Figure 19.30 B787 wing‐box structure. Courtesy Boeing.
Figure 19.31 Typical choices for empennage joints. (a) Vertical tail. (b) Horiz...
Figure 19.32 Problem 19.1 loading.
Figure 19.33 Wing FEM analyses – shades indicate stress levels explained in the...
Chapter 20
DFM/A steps.
Figure 20.1 Cost versus tolerance relationship. Manufacturing cost reduces as t...
Figure 20.2 Aircraft cost factors of the worked‐out Bizjet example.
Chapter 21
Figure 21.1 Perceived noise level (PNL) expressed in PNdB.
Figure 21.2 Noise measurement points at takeoff and landing.
Figure 21.3 ICAO noise requirements.
Figure 21.4 Typical noise footprint (≈10 km long) of aircraft showing the engin...
Figure 21.5 Typical sources of noise emanating from an airframe.
Figure 21.6 Relative noise distributions from various aircraft and engine sourc...
Figure 21.7 In‐flight turbofan noise radiation profile.
Figure 21.8 Noise considerations for propeller‐driven aircraft.
Figure 21.9 Typical icing envelope [3].
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 Positions of noise liners and suppression/mixing arrangements.
Figure 22.2 Concept design of futuristic ‘silent aircraft’. [Cambridge‐MIT Inst...
Figure 22.3 Inflatable escape slide.
Figure 22.4 True‐air data analogue indicating instruments.
Top row
: Airspeed in...
Figure 22.5 Altimeter.
Figure 22.6 Pitot‐static tube.
Figure 22.7 Pitot‐static probe (centre figure has AOA integrated) on an aircraf...
Figure 22.8 Angle of attack probe at the centre in between the pitot‐static pro...
Figure 22.9 Total and static temperature probe. Reproduced with permission of W...
Figure 22.10 Turn and slip indicator showing a right turn.
Figure 22.11 Multi‐functional display (Courtesy of Dynon Avionics). (a) Air dat...
Figure 22.12 Multi‐functional display (Courtesy of Dynon Avionics). Reproduced ...
Figure 22.13 Old type (BAe146) Flight deck with analogue head‐down display. Rep...
Figure 22.14 Outline of a generic modern civil aircraft flight deck panel with ...
Figure 22.15 Schematic fighter aircraft flight deck. (a) Flight deck with HUD. ...
Aircraft as a system.
Figure 22.16 Wire‐pulley and push‐pull rod control system (Courtesy of Europa‐A...
Figure 22.17 Civil aircraft control surfaces.
Figure 22.18 Military aircraft control surfaces.
Figure 22.19 Piston engine fuel system.
Figure 22.20 Turbofan engine/fuel control system.
Figure 22.21 Auxiliary power unit (APU).
Figure 22.22 Ram air turbine (RAT).
Figure 22.23 Antenna locations.
Figure 22.24 Aircraft lighting requirements.
Figure 22.25 Aircraft hydraulics system (Courtesy of BAE Systems – RJ family).
Figure 22.26 Schematic civil aircraft ECS and cabin air flow.
Figure 22.27 BAE RJ family air‐conditioning system (Courtesy of BAE Systems).
Figure 22.28 Military aircraft ECS.
Figure 22.29 Military oxygen system.
Figure 22.30 Civil aircraft anti‐icing subsystem – Piccolo tube and ice formati...
Figure 22.31 BAE RJ family anti‐icing system (Courtesy of BAE Systems).
Figure 22.32 Anti‐icing subsystem using boots (Goodrich). (a) Pneumatically inf...
Figure 22.33 Civil aircraft rain‐repellent system.
Figure 22.34 Water and waste system.
Figure 22.35 RJ family waste water system (Courtesy of BAE Systems).
Figure 22.36 Civil aircraft turnaround servicing locations.
Figure 22.37 Typical military aircraft ejection seat. (http://www.geocities.com...
Figure 22.38 Detonation chord laid on canopy glass.
Figure 22.39 Typical ejection sequence from aircraft.
Figure 22.40 Typical ejection sequence showing separation of seat and parachute...
Figure 22.41 Typical comparisons of radar signatures (sphere versus stealth air...
Figure 22.42 Three stealth aircraft configurations.
Chapter 23
Figure 23.1 CFD simulation of wing‐body drag polar [6]. Reproduced with permis...
Figure 23.2 CFD contribution to Airbus380 aircraft [1].
Figure 23.3 Wing‐fuselage geometry with meshing. (a) On the surface (Courtesy A...
Figure 23.4 CFD post‐processor visualisation (a) Pressure distribution (Courtes...
Figure 23.5 CFD analysis of a 2‐D aerofoil. (a) Preprocessor showing adaptive g...
Figure 23.6 CFD flow analyses case studies. (a) High‐lift device. (b) Nacelle g...
Figure 23.7 CFD results of a nacelle by Chen et al. [16]. (a) Nacelle geometry....
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 Airbus two‐propeller E‐Fan prototype aircraft (Courtesy: Airbus).
Figure 24.2 Comparison of different types of systems. (a) The Ragone plot (Cour...
Figure 24.3 Lithium‐ion battery characteristics.
Figure 24.4 Battery powered electric aircraft power train.
Figure 24.5 Fuel cell powered electric aircraft power train.
Figure 24.6 Solar cell powered electric aircraft power‐train.
Figure 24.7 Hybrid engine powered electric aircraft power train. (a) Types of h...
Figure 24.8 Distributed electric propulsion (DEP) system. (a) NASA Sceptor X‐57...
Guide
Cover
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