Index
ALO3, 564
laser welding, 562–5
aluminium door application, 564
divided tailgate application of Audi A8, 564–5
laser welding door application of Audi A6, 563–4
aluminium alloys, 215–47
corrosion, 230–1
defects, 229
laser welding, 215–18
thermal conductivity, 216
laser welding technologies, 218–26
butt welds, 219
publication summary, 222–5
mechanical properties, 229–30
microstructure, 226–8
2024 and 5083 weld beads, 228
microhardness of different zones of welds, 228
angular distortion, 385–7
heat input under bead on plate welding, 387
ANSI AWS D17.1:2001, 242
arc welding, 459
Audi, 556
austenitic stainless steels, 189–90
welding performance of, 304
stainless steel, 189
body shop, 558–65
laser welding of aluminium, 562–5
laser welding of steel, 559–62
future trends, 569–74
car body construction, 569–70
environmental compatibility, 573–4
laser process monitoring and control, 570–2
simulation of laser processes, 572–3
laser welding, 555–74
production targets and challenges, 555–8
challenges, 556–7
economic efficiency, 557–8
targets, 555–6
quality issues, 565–9
preliminary treatments, 566–9
stability, 565–6
base frame, 405
bead on plates (BOP), 237
butt weld (steel) with and without beam scanning, 430
narrow gap welding by means of beam scanning, 431
oscillator mirror, 428
various possibilities of oscillations, 429
welding seam of aluminium against copper, 429
Bessel function, 544
Blohm + Voss, 607
T-joint welding head and cross section, 608
Boussinesq approximation, 540
braze welding, 259–60
buckling, 389–1
factors influential to welding distortion and residual stress, 390
residual stress distribution in plate surrounded by welding lines, 390
build-up welding, 464–6
effect of laser power intensity and deposited area, 465
welding of 50mm thick plates, 466
buoyancy force, 540
burn-through, 337–9
weld beads and video results of molten pool, 338
camera frame, 408
car body, 556
construction, 569–70
laser applications in body shop, 558–65
Carman–Kozeny equation, 539
charge-coupled device (CCD), 96
chemical cleaning, 566
clamping system, 295–6
transmission laser welding, 295
CO2 laser beam, 19–22
BPP of some lasers as a function of laser output power, 21
CO2 laser welding, 307–15
CO2 laser beam characteristics, 19–22
developments, 17–44
fibre optical rotary joints (FORJ) for optical fibre, 313–15
future trends, 44
industrial applications, 39–44
aircraft industry, 40–1
automotive industry, 39–40
chemical plant, 43
laser welded sandwich panel, 42
laser welded tailored blanks, 40
riveting vs laser welding for the skin to stringer joint, 41
shipbuilding industry, 41–2
steel industry, 42
keyhole welding process, 307–10
laser–materials interactions, 22–31
phenomena and defects, 31–9
CO2 laser welds without back shielding, 37
CW CO2 laser welds, 34
defect formation in partial penetration, 33–6
defect formation in single pass full penetration, 36–9
hot cracking formation, 38
in-situ x-ray transmission image near the keyhole tip, 35
in-situ x-ray transmission image of keyhole, 34
porosity formation, 39
porosity formation ratio Pr as a function of power modulation frequency, 36
pressure balance on keyhole wall, 31–3
prevention of porosity under optimum power modulation condition, 36
single pass full penetration CO2 laser welding behaviour of C–Si–Mn steel, 37
principles and types, 17–19
aerodynamic window, 20
fast axis flow laser, 18
RF exited slab laser, 19
transverse flow laser, 19
unstable resonator, 20
spot welding for optical assembly, 310–13
cold cracking, 344
combined calibration, 411–13
laser and sensor positioning, 413
sensor positioning and profile, 412
combining laser welding and laser cutting, 493–502
laser and arc hybrid welding, 480–92
technology developments, 478–502
conduction laser welding, 139–57
application, 151–7
diode laser welding, 155
high power diode laser, 154
kitchen sink weld and powder deposition, 154
laser filler weld seams on titanium, 155
manufacturing of a 3D block of a Ti–47Al–2Cr–2Nb and Cp–Ti tube, 156
sample in AA6083 with different power and welding speeds, 153
underwater laser beam welding and deposit, 157
welded AZ61 magnesium alloy, 155
conduction and keyhole mode transition, 142–7
current definition, 142
identification of the different welding regimes, 145
identification of three welding modes, 146
laser power density necessary to reach vaporisation temperature, 143
three welding modes by Buvanashekaran, 148
three welding regimes, 147
variation of penetration, for aluminium, with the power density and pulse time, 144
schematic diagram, 149
variation of surface temperature and the penetration with beam radius in aluminium, 149
vs keyhole welding, 139–41
advantages and disadvantages, 141
blowout event that originates spatter, 140
conduction laser weld with 6.35 mm of penetration, 141
welds beam profile, 152
conduction welding, 218
conservation of energy, 107
conservation of mass, 106
conservation of momentum, 106
conservation of species, 107
CO2 laser welding applications, 307–15
fundamentals, 304–7
different welding modes, 304
residual stress in melting containing free surface, 305–7
welding modes, 304–5
developments, 103–32
fundamentals, 104–19
future trends, 131–2
laser welding developments, 119–31
continuous welding, 220
aluminium alloys, 230–1
titanium alloys, 247
covariance mapping technique (CMT), 220
crack propagation, 454
curtain laser, 294
cutting, 453–6
effect of beam intensity ratio on change in stress intensity, 456
experimental vs analytical results of crack path for single-laser beam, 455
schematic illustration of laser cutting, 454
tandem-beam irradiation in laser cutting of glass, 456
defocusing distance, 581–2
influence on penetration depth of overlap joint, 582
diamond tool, 453
dielectric welding, 288
diffraction, 536
diode laser, 292–3
applications, 78–100
e-mobility, 78–80
hybrid laser welding with high laser power, 97–100
laser metal deposition (LMD) by powder injection, 84–9
laser scanner welding, 89–93
powertrain production, 93–7
sheet metal, 80–4
developments, 73–101
future trends, 100–1
principles, 73–7
cavity of a disk laser setup, 74
higher laser power, 75
laser power extraction per unit of area, 76
output power and efficiency of a typical high power single disk laser oscillator, 76
schematic diagram, 74
technological trends and developments, 77–8
dissimilar-material joint, 255
formation and properties, 268–75
bend test of laser MIG hybrid welded aluminium–steel sheets, 275
effect of heat input per length on phase seam thickness, 272
fatigue behaviour, 273
fractured laser MIG hybrid welded aluminium steel specimen, 274
grains orientation of a typical phase layer in aluminium steel joints, 271
joint formation and the intermetallic phase layer, 268–72
laser power effect on layer thickness of MIG hybrid welding of aluminium to steel, 271
mechanical properties and formability, 272–5
phase layer in aluminium steel joints, 270
relation between wetting length and tensile length, 273
titanium–aluminium aircraft seat tracks, 268
zinc-rich region at the tip of the wetted zone, 269
future trends, 275–6
principle design approach for integral CFRP–aluminium structure, 276
joining issues, 256–9
intermetallic phase properties for binary system Fe-Al, 258
material properties, 257
laser joining processes, 259–68
aluminium–steel tailored hybrid blank, 267
aluminium–steel tailored hybrid tube, 267
aluminium–titanium joining process principle, 261
aluminium–titanium joint surface and cross section, 262
combined and special processes, 262–6
general considerations, 259
laser MIG hybrid welded aluminium–steel specimen, 265
laser MIIG hybrid joining process, 264
laser-plasma hybrid joining, 266
laser welding of aluminium to steel, 261
potential application, 266–8
process parameter envelope for laser MIG hybrid welding, 265
research activities in the field of laser joining, 260
superimposed force-effect of force, 263
superimposed force-process principle, 263
laser welding and brazing, 255–76
distortion, 258
causes, 376–9
influential factors, 385–91
laser welding, 374–97
longitudinal and transverse shrinkage, 380–5
mechanism, 391–7
door application, 559–62
Drude theory, 526
dual-beam laser irradiation See twin-beam laser
ductility, 598
e-mobility, 78–80
industrial implementation, 78–80
lithium-ion battery for a mobile phone, 79
welded I-seam (aluminium), 80
motivation, 78
economic efficiency, 557–8
electromagnetic force, 127–31
corresponding velocity distributions in weld pool, 131
electron prove micro analyser (EPMA), 549
elongated keyhole regime, 64
environmental compatibility, 573–4
eSIE, 480
extrusion welding, 288
fast axis flow lasers, 18
fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR), 246
ferrite, 467–8
ferritic stainless steels, 190–1
fibre delivery, 173–5
back reflection protection, 175
coupling of laser beam into an optical fibre, 174
range scanning heads available for microwelding, 175
advantages, 173
schematic diagram, 172
vs Nd:YAG laser, 181
optical fibre, 313–15
collimated beam provided by Schwarzschild objective, 314
coupling between two fibre arrays over freeboard, 313
optical fibre welded to glass substrate cross section, 314
filler wire, 562
developments in multi-pass laser welding, 459–76
future trends, 471–6
principle, 460–1
technological developments, 461–70
Fincantieri, 606–7
flash-free welding, 288
forced mixed extrusion welding, 288
four-point bending test, 602
RQT690 steel, 603
Fresnel absorption, 112–14
schematic diagram, 525
friction stir welding, 287
fusion welding, 303
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 245–6
Gaussian function, 544
continuous wave (CW) laser welding, 304–15
features, 302–4
comparison of glass joining procedures and their performance, 302
future trends, 327–8
laser welding, 301–28
ultra short pulse lasers (USPL) welding, 315–27
Goldak heat source model, 523
Gouffe–Dausinger model, 434
graphical user interface (GUI), 404
Hagen–Rubens relation, 527–8
heat conduction simulations, 523
heat input, 580–1
microstructure of cross section of overlap joint, 581
high power diode laser (HPDL), 217
hot bar welding, 288
hot gas welding, 288
hot plate welding, 288
weld beads and video observation pictures during welding, 342
hybrid laser-arc welding, 119–23
schematic diagram, 120
vs laser welding, 120
developments in modelling and simulation, 522–50
applications for improving technique and quality, 546–9
future trends, 549–50
key issues, 524–46
role of modelling, 522–4
high laser power, 97–100
laser hybrid welded T-joint and double sided welding of an 8 mm thick sheet, 100
principle, 98
weld pool dynamics, 545–6
combining laser welding and laser cutting, 493–502
laser and arc hybrid welding, 480–92
map of combined laser processes and tools, Plate XXIII technology developments, 478–502
40 mm thick plates without filler wire, 474
50 mm thick plates without filler wire, 474–6
butt-joint laser welding with gas jet, 475
groove geometry, 475
impulse welding, 288
inclusions, 346
induction welding, 288
infrared welding, 289
inherent force, 379
inherent strain, 376–8
thin plate, 378–9
three-bar model subjected to subjected thermal cycle, 380–2
schematic diagram, 380
stress in bar b under thermal cycle, 381
inherent stress, 379
incident laser energy attenuation, 23–7
absorption coefficient of Ar plasma, 25
elements ionisation potential, 24
monochromatic photographs of laser-induced plasma, 26
penetration depth as a function of welding speed in CO2 laser welding, 27
shielding gas effect on the penetration depth in CO2 laser welding, 26
inverse Bremsstrahlung absorption, 111–12
ISO 13919–1, 546
ISO DIS 12932, 513
ISO DIS 1561414, 514
ISO DIS 15609–6: 2010, 514
keyhole collapse, 118–19
keyhole depth, 48–53
general sketch of laser welding, 50
gas dynamic of vapour and air, 109
laser welding with solid-state lasers, 48–61
computed keyhole profiles, 55
opening stabilisation using side gas jet, 56–8
spatter formation, 53–6
vapour plume behaviour, 58–60
wall inclination and depth, 48–53
welding under vacuum conditions, 60–1
multiple reflections of laser beam, 111–14
weld speed variation, 61–7
inclination, 48–53
general skech of laser welding, 50
pressure balance, 31–3
keyhole behaviour during laser welding, 33
keyhole welding, 307–10
conduction mode transition, 142–7
current definition, 142
identification of the different welding regimes, 145
identification of three welding modes, 146
laser power density necessary to reach vaporisation temperature, 143
three welding modes by Buvanashekaran, 148
three welding regimes, 147
variation of penetration, for aluminium, with the power density and pulse time, 144
high-speed photographs in Vycol glass, 310
vs conduction laser welding, 139–41
advantages and disadvantages, 141
blowout event that originates spatter, 140
conduction laser weld with 6.35 mm of penetration, 141
Knudsen layer, 108–9
lap laser welding, 575–6
lap weld swelling, 345
laser, 167–73
components, 167
principle and practical device of the integrated hybrid welding nozzle, 487
orbital welding equipment with laser arc hybrid weld head, 513
heavy section high-strength steel plates, 488–92
CO2-laser-MAG hybrid welding parameters, 492
distance influence between laser and arc with an optimum for weld efficiency, 488
expanded process windows and improved gap bridging, 490
fatigue results of heavy section laser hybrid welds, 492
focal position influence with an optimum for weld efficiency, 489
hybrid welded high-strength steel plates cross section, 491
process windows and gap bridging capability for laser-MAG hybrid welding, 490
optics with scanner module, 509
physical model of root formation, 484–6
hybrid welding of fillet weld at lap joint, 484
root pressure balance, 485
three different cases for the gap bridging capability, 486
principle and state-of-the-art, 480–4
gap bridging capability in an aluminium alloy, 484
parameters showing benefits of hybrid welding, 483
schematic diagram, 481
quality issues, 512–16
element distribution (Ni, Cr) in laser-hybrid weld of S690 steel, 517
hardness distribution in laser-hybrid welded X65 steel, 516
hot crack susceptibility for S690 with increasing restraint intensity, 515
technology development, 505–19
interaction, 542–4
temperature distribution, 543
modelling, 544–5
laser-assisted metal and plastic (LAMP), 208–9
delivery, 173–7
fibre delivery, 173–5
laser performance, 176–7
output waveform with relaxation pulse, 178
scanning heads, 175–6
profile, 177–81
Gaussian beam profile weld, 180
Nd:YAG pulsed laser beam profile, 178
single-mode fibre laser beam profile, 180
top hat (flat top) beam profile of 300 W fibre laser, 181
top hat welds at different pulse energies, 179
quality, 165–7
Gaussian beam width as a function of the axial distance, 166
vs laser output power, 166
beam movement over the workpiece, 424–6
large-scale remote welding system, 427
small field scanner, 424
stand-alone system of large-scale remote welding station, 427
superposition of scanning head with linear axes for welding of large-scale 2D parts, 426
superposition of scanning head with robot for welding large scale 3D parts, 425
typical 2D-and 3D-part welded, 428
welding seam of automotive heat exchanger, 425
future trends, 429–32
combining two different scanning heads to provide beam shaping, 432
overview, 422–3
beam deflection by using scanning mirrors, 423
technology developments, 422–32
dendritic structure of overlap laser welding joints, 584
microstructure of overlap laser welding joints, 583
dissimilar materials, 255–76
formation and properties, 268–75
future trends, 275–6
joining issues, 256–9
laser joining processes, 259–68
mixed-material design in the automotive industry, 256
laser brightness, 495–6
laser cladding, 450
laser-clean process, 566
laser combi-head, 494–5
cutting heads vs welding heads, 494
combining with laser welding, 493–502
case studies of combined laser cutting and welding, 499
combi-head at work, 501
combi-processed B-pillar, 500
cutting and welding speeds vs thickness, 499
future trends, 498–502
integrated process chain for nonlinear tailored blank production, 497
multifunctional processing, 493–4
sealed overlap drill hole production by laser cutting, 502
solutions and applications, 496–8
laser-diode (LD)-pumped solid-state (YAG) laser, 5–6
laser-induced plasma, 23–31
incident laser energy attenuation by inverse Bremsstrahlung, 23–7
plasma diagnostics, 27–9
plasma monitoring, 29–31
material surface, 22–3
absorptivity of some materials for three wavelengths at room temperatures, 22
laser forming, 396
mechanism by micro shockwave, 396
laser-gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding, 121
incident laser energy attenuation by inverse Bremsstrahlung, 23–7
plasma diagnostics, 27–9
laser power effect on plasma size and absorptivity, 29
maximum plasma temperature, plasma size and absorptivity for argon shielding gas, 30
maximum plasma temperature, plasma size and absorptivity for defocus distances, 31
temperature profile of argon plasma, 28
plasma monitoring, 29–31
in-process monitoring of penetration depth by plasma emission signal, 32
radiative heat transfer, 114–15
transport phenomena, 107–8
laser-induced recoil pressure, 108–11
gas dynamic of vapour and air, 109
laser–materials interactions, 22–31
laser energy absorption in laser-induced plasma, 23–31
laser energy absorption on material surface, 22–3
powder injection, 84–9
coating production on agricultural cutting discs, 86
piston ring groove after laser metal deposition and machining, 87–9
transfer of deposit material, 85
application samples, 164
applications, 202–8
disk drive flexure, 204
laser spot welds, 205
laser welded radioactive isotopes, 206
laser welding of microwave packages and a drop-in cover, 207
lithium ion battery, 203
seam weld around the cardiac pacemaker, 206
defects and joints evaluation, 194–202
effect of weld diameter on the nugget size and shear strength, 202
leak test, 201
leak testing jig, 201
future trends, 208–9
laser choices, 165–81
beam delivery, 173–7
beam profile, 177–81
beam quality, 165–7
laser structure, 167–73
Nd:YAG vs fibre, 181
process, 181–94
absorptivity vs wavelength of different metals, 184
conduction mode laser welding, 183
dissimilar weld joints, 193
four different alloy additions on the crack sensitivity of aluminium, 188
keyhole or deep penetration mode laser welding, 185
materials, 186–91
maximum gap and positioning tolerances for different laser welded joints, 187
microwelding of dissimilar materials, 191–2
minimum laser power needed to melt different metals pulsed Nd:YAG laser, 184
plating and coatings, 192–4
ramp down temporal laser pulse shape, 194
shielding gas during welding, 182
weldability of metal pairs, 191
welding joints, 185–6
welding modes, 181–5
welds made with 400 W (JK400FL) single-mode fibre laser, 186
technology developments, 163–209
laser-plasma interaction, 111–14
laser-plasma welding, 121
laser power, 577–9
Gaussian-like distribution of the intensity of laser beam, 578
influence on penetration of depth of overlap joint, 577
microstructure of the cross section of overlap joint, 578
laser pulsing, 568–9
laser remote welding, 558
laser scanner welding, 89–93
laser remote welded car seat, 93
laser remote welding in body in white, 93
programmable focusing optics (PFO) 3D, 91
rapid welding sequence performed by the programmable focusing optics (PFO), 92
laser surface melting (LSM), 231
laser tool calibration, 408–11
camera measurement, 410
frames, 408
laser tool frame, 405–6
laser triangulation, 571
aluminium and titanium alloys, 215–47
applications for improving technique and quality, 546–9
applications in shipbuilding industry, 596–611
approval, 597–604
future trends, 607–10
industrial examples, 604–7
automotive industry, 555–74
body shop, 558–65
future trends, 569–74
production targets and challenges, 555–8
quality issues, 565–9
characteristics, 3–4
power densities, heat sources and geometries, 4
combining with laser cutting, 493–502
case studies of combined laser cutting and welding, 499
combi-head at work, 501
combi-processed B-pillar, 500
cutting and welding speeds vs thickness, 499
future trends, 498–502
integrated process chain for nonlinear tailored blank production, 497
multifunctional processing, 493–4
sealed overlap drill hole production by laser cutting, 502
solutions and applications, 496–8
defect formation and preventive procedures, 332–69
dissimilar materials, 255–76
formation and properties, 268–75
future trends, 275–6
joining issues, 256–9
laser joining processes, 259–68
mixed-material design in the automotive industry, 256
evolution, 13–16
laser lap joints of 3 mm thick Type 304 steel plate, 15
laser welds in Type 304 steel, 14
near joint interface between Type 304 steel plate and PET plastic sheet, 15
fundamentals, 3–16
burn-through or melt down, 337–9
humping, 341
overlapping, 340–1
poor surface appearance, 336–7
undercutting, 339
underfilling, 339–40
glass, 301–28
continuous wave (CW) laser, 304–15
features, 302–4
future trends, 327–8
ultra short pulse lasers (USPL), 315–27
alloying element and content on hot cracking susceptibility of welds in aluminium alloys, 368
cracking formation in laser weld fusion zones, 367
effects of various factors on solidification cracking susceptibility of laser welds, 369
partial-penetration and full-penetration welds, 366
spot welds made with pulsed lasers, 365
strain levels applied at constant strain rate for ductility curve, 364
alloying elements evaporation loss, 346
cold cracking, 344
inclusions, 346
incomplete penetration and fusion, 345–6
lap weld swelling, 345
macrosegregation, 346–7
microsegregation, 347–8
porosity, 344–5
spiking, 345
key issues in modelling, 524–46
absorptivity vs incident angle based on Fresnel reflection and Drude theory, 527
absorptivity vs incident angle based on Fresnel reflection and Hagen-Rubens relation, 528
diffracted laser beam and direction vector of a ray, 531
laser-arc interaction, 542–4
laser heat source model, 528–31
laser-matter interaction, 524–8
modelling of arc welding process, 544–5
multiple-reflection model of keyhole, 531–5
optical geometry of laser beam, 530
scattering model of keyhole, 535–8
schematic diagram of incoming bundles of rays, 529
schematic diagram of original mesh and sub-mesh, 530
kinds, features, causes and suppression or prevention of main laser welding defects, 334–5
lasers for welding, 4–7
CO2 and YAG laser welding systems, 6
remote welding system using solidstate laser, 7
types and characteristics, 5
beam diameter (power density) and welding speed, 13
phenomena, 7–11
CO2 laser weld beads, 10
coupling coefficient of laser energy, 9
laser welding, 10
laser-welded joints, 8
melt flows in molten pool and weld bead geometry, 12
plume and plasma formation during laser welding, 11
spot and bead welding, 8
plastics, 280–99
advantages and disadvantages of transmission laser welding, 298–9
history, 280–1
modelling, 285–6
parameters, 297–8
parameters effect, 285
polymer combinations, 289
processes, 286–9
theory, 281–5
porosity formation and prevention, 351–61
quality of property defects, 348–51
mechanical property reduction, 348–9
tensile test results of base metals and welded joints, 350
railway industry, 575–94
future trends, 592–3
heat source model of lap laser welding, 585–90
quality control of laser welding joints, 590–2
stainless steel railway vehicles, 576–85
residual stress and distortion, 374–97
causes, 376–9
influential factors, 385–91
longitudinal and transverse shrinkage, 380–5
mechanism, 391–7
welding residual stress distribution, 375
robotics, 401–420
connection topology, 403–4
coordinate frames and transformations, 404–6
key issues, 399–403
seam teaching and tracking, 414–15
tool calibration, 406–13
trajectory-based control, 415–18
weld pool dynamics, 538–42
diagram of regions for heat transfer calculation, 541
laser–material interaction, 150
LDF 4000–30, 564
sample in laser weld fusion zone, 343
liquid–solid interface, 117
longitudinal residual stress distribution, 388
Lorentz model, 526
macrosegregation, 346–7
laser weld made in butt-joint of cast iron and low carbon steel, 347
manual metal arc welding (MMAW), 511–12
martensitic stainless steels, 190–1
internally melted zone, 321–3
Foturan sample and overlap-welded joint plotted in Foturan glass, 323
Foturan sample determined by a three-point bending test, 322
melt down, 337–9
weld beads and video results of molten pool, 338
melt flow, 115–17
melt pool, 61–7
melted zone (MZ), 239
metal active-gas (MAG) welding, 122
metal inert gas/metal active gas (MIG/MAG), 481–3
metal inert-gas (MIG) welding, 122
Meyer Werft, 604–6
installation and stiffener welding head and clamping tools, 606
laser welded sandwich panels, 605
layout of pre-manufacturing workshop, 605
microsegregation, 347–8
Fe, Mg and Si in laser weld fusion zone of A6061 aluminium alloy, 348
mechanical properties, 468–9
results of tensile tests, 469
Vickers hardness distribution, 469
weld metal for multi-pass laser welding of SUS316L plates, 468
welding crack, 466–8
microwave welding, 288
Mie absorption, 542
Mie scattering, 538
mismatch strain, 376–8
deformation and force, 377
mismatching, 599–600
mixed-material joint, 255
moving laser, 293
moving part, 293
developments with filler wire, 459–76
future trends, 471–6
comparison of conventional and gas jet assisted laser welding for bead-on-plate welding, 472
conventional vs gas jet assisted laser welding, 471–3
I-butt joint welding, 474–6
schematic of gas jet assisted laser welding, 471
principle, 460–1
groove geometry of workpiece, 461
schematic diagram, 461
technological developments, 461–70
applications, 466–70
welding parameters, 463–6
welding systems, 461–2
multiple-beam laser welding, 123–5
beam arrangement in a dual-/multi-beam laser welding, 124
classification of light-scattering phenomena, 538
flowchart of molten pool simulation process, 533
free surface illustrating occurrence of reflection, 534
sample of ray-tracing technique, 534
schematic diagram of methodology, 532
schematic for cell on which ray is incident, 536
developments, 47–72
future trends, 67–9
laser welding in keyhole (KH) mode with solid-state lasers, 48–61
schematic diagram, 168
temporal laser pulse shape, 170
vs fibre laser, 181
weld speed variation on global behaviour of keyhole (KH) and melt pool, 61–7
nonlinear absorption process, 315–16
multiphoton ionisation and avalanche ionisation, 315
nonlinear absorptivity, 318–21
laser absorbed region length, 321
modified zone of borosilicate glass, 319
USPL at different pulse energies and repetition rates, 320
notched tensile strength (NTS), 245
null frame, 405
numerical simulations, 523
Odense Steel Shipyard, 607
laser installation, 610
TEU container vessel, 609
orbital welding, 287
cross section of joint with the diagram of hardness, 584
phase organisation of the weld, 585
glass plates, 321–7
advantages of USPL welding, 324–5
effect of translation speed and pulse repetition rate, 328
laser welding system, 323–4
mechanical strength of internally melted zone, 321–3
multipath overlap welding of borosilicate glass, 325
overlap welding of glass plates with optical contact, 324
pealed-off weld joint, 325
shear force to break optical contact vs contact area, 326
p-polarisation, 524
peak power, 170
temporal laser pulse, 171
phase layer formation, 258
photoionisation, 542
pilot laser frame, 408–9
piston effect, 48
Planck mean absorption coefficient, 114–15
plasma arc welding (PAW), 122
advantages and disadvantages of transmission laser welding, 298–9
applications, 299
history, 280–1
laser welding, 280–99
polymer combinations, 289
compatibility of welding performance between different thermoplastic materials, 290
welding modelling, 285–6
polymer welding showing chain interdiffusion at a joint, 287
welding parameters, 297–8
welding parameters effect, 285
schematic diagram, 286
clamping systems, 295–6
equipment and variations, 292
equipment manipulation, 293–5
laser types for transmission laser welding, 292–3
monitoring and control methods, 296–7
transmission laser welding, 291
welding methods, 294
welding processes, 286–9
electromagnetism, 288–9
mechanical heat source, 288
mechanical movement generated by heat, 287–8
welding theory, 281–5
diffusion by reptation, 283–5
graph of specific volume vs temperature for amorphous thermoplastic, 282
graph of specific volume vs temperature for semicrystalline thermoplastic, 282
materials and thermal effects, 281–3
polymer chains crossing an interface by diffusion, 284
polygonal ferrite (PF), 584
formation and prevention, 351–61
during spot welding with pulsed laser, 351–3
during welding of materials with great sensitivity, 360–1
effect of defocused distance and pulse width on penetration depths of spot welds, 352
laser welding phenomena, 358–9
laser welds produced at 1–5 mm/s under pulse-modulation conditions, 362
microfocused X-ray transmission in-situ imaging, 351
phenomena during laser welding of Zn-coated steel lap sheets, 363
porosity in laser weld fusion zone of die-cast AZ91 magnesium alloy, 360
saw-like pulse waves and surface appearances of spot welds, 354
typical and root porosity in spot welds of stainless steel, 353
various types of porosity in laser weld fusion zones, 355
weld beads and X-ray transmission in-situ imaging, 356
X-ray transmission apparatus, 351
laser application, 93–7
differential gear, 95
laser welded dual clutch, 95
laser welding of a truck differential gear, 94
TRUMPF SeamLine Pro, 97
TRUMPF TruDisk cavity, 96
TRUMPF TruDisk laser, 96
pre-humping regime, 64–5
preliminary treatments, 566–9
pre-treatment of zinc-coated metal sheets, 567–9
controlled zinc expansion, 568
uncontrolled zinc expansion, 567
surface cleaning of aluminium metal sheets, 566–7
product frame, 406
programmable focusing optics (PFO), 89–90
laser welding for porosity prevention, 125–7
pulse energy, 169–70
pulse frequency, 170–1
welding speed vs repetition rate, 171
pulse overlap, 170–1
welding speed vs repetition rate, 171
pulse welding, 220
pulsed Nd:YAG lasers, 79–80
developments, 103–32
fundamentals, 104–19
free surfaces tracking, 115
keyhole collapse and porosity formation, 118–19
laser-induced recoil pressure and keyhole formation, 108–11
laser-plasma interaction and multiple reflections of laser beam in keyhole, 111–14
melt flow and weld pool dynamics, 115–17
pulsed laser keyhole welding process, 105
radiative heat transfer in laser-induced plasma, 114–15
transport phenomena in laser-induced plasma, 107–8
transport phenomena in metal, 106–7
future trends, 131–2
laser welding developments, 119–31
pulsed wave lasers, 4
radiation transport equation (RTE), 114
laser-induced plasma, 114–15
heat source model of lap laser welding, 585–90
boundary conditions, 586
model and mesh, 585–6
weld shapes under different parameters, 588–90
laser welding, 575–94
future trends, 592–3
laser-MAG hybrid welding, 594
quality control of laser welding joints, 590–2
quality requests, 591
ultrasonic inspection, 591–2
stainless steel railway vehicles, 576–85
features of laser welding joints, 582–5
influence of welding parameters, 577–82
resistance spot welding and laser welding joints, 577
Raman scattering, 537
recoil pressure, 540
reference frame, 408
reflection, 536
refraction, 537
reptation theory, 283–5
causes, 376–9
coupons made with different deposition patterns, 394
influential factors, 385–91
heat input on transverse shrinkage under bead on plate welding, 386
longitudinal bending of beam, buckling and twisting deformation, 385
laser welding, 374–97
LBW, GTAW and GTAW+SMAW, 393
longitudinal and transverse shrinkage, 380–5
inherent strain in three-bar model, 380–2
welding deformation, 382–5
mechanism, 391–7
predicted distortions of a ship structure, 395
simulation prediction, 394–6
melting containing free surface, 305–7
CO2 laser welding of soda-lime glass, 307
keyhole welding in soda-lime glass using electron beam, 306
three-bar model in CO2 laser welding of glass, 305
welding processes and residual stress parallel to welding direction, 470
resistive implant welding, 288
robot-guided systems, 82
robotic frame, 406
connection topology, 403–4
sensor-guided robotic laser welding system, 404
coordinate frames and transformations, 404–6
sensor-guided robotic laser welding, 405
key issues, 399–403
complex 3D product, 402
laser welding, 401–420
seam teaching and tracking, 414–15
tool calibration, 406–13
trajectory-based control, 415–18
architecture, 416
root pass welding, 463
Rosenthal regime, 61–2
KH with surrounding melt pool, 63
s-polarisation, 524
scanning heads, 175–6
fitted to delivery fibre from the laser, 176
spot welds made with pulsed Nd:YAG laser, 177
scanning laser, 295
scattering model, 535–8
interaction between electromagnetic waves and spherical particles, 536
schematic diagram, 537
seam frame, 406
sensor-guided robotic laser welding system, 407
sensor tool frame, 406
shear tensile tests, 583–4
laser welding, 80–4
heat conduction-welded top plate, 84
laser-welded sandwich component for use in medical engineering, 85
sheet metal process chain, 81
TruLaser Robot 5020 robot system, 83
shielding gas, 232–3
applications of laser welding, 596–611
arc welded panels for a passenger ship, 597
approval, 597–604
Charpy transition curve for the 0.5 mm gap weld, 602
effects of mismatching, 599–600
four-point bending test, 603
hardness profiles for welds, 601
mechanical properties, 600–2
self-quenching, 598–9
solidification flaws, 600
unified guidelines, 602–4
future trends, 607–10
industrial examples, 604–7
Blohm + Voss, 607
cruise ship built at Aker Yard, 604
Fincantieri, 606–7
Meyer Werft, 604–6
Odense Steel Shipyard, 607
STX Finland Cruise, 607
KH opening stabilisation, 56–8
KH aperture, 57
melt pool behaviour and KH aperture, 58
simulation, laser processes, 572–3
simultaneous welding, 294
single wave regime, 62–4
KH with surrounding melt pool, 63
singularity, 564
slab lasers, 18
beam movement over the workpiece, 424–6
future trends, 429–32
overview, 422–3
beam deflection by using scanning mirrors, 423
technology developments, 422–32
laser welding in keyhole (KH) mode, 48–61
computed keyhole profiles, 55
opening stabilisation using side gas jet, 56–8
spatter formation, 53–6
vapour plume behaviour, 58–60
wall inclination and depth, 48–53
welding under vacuum conditions, 60–1
sample in laser weld fusion zone, 343
solidification flaws, 600
spacer, 568
spiking, 345
spin welding, 287
optical assembly, 310–13
bare gold-coated laser-welded rooftop, 312
thick plates by CO2 laser, 311
stainless steel railway vehicles, 576–85
features of laser welding joints, 582–5
mechanical properties, 583–5
microstructure of laser beam welds, 582–3
heat source model of lap laser welding, 585–90
combination of heat source models, 588
cross-section of laser gap weld, 587
physical model, 585
simulated diagram, 586
simulated pool shapes for different laser power, 589
simulated pool shapes for different welding speeds, 590
simulation vs experiment of molten pool, 589
thermal conductivity and specific heat coefficient, 587
quality control of laser welding joints, 590–2
lap laser welding, 592
schematic diagram of joint arrangement, 591
ultrasonic probe, 592
station frame, 406
laser welding, 559–62
Audi A4 door frame, 560
seam positions, 561
side view of Audi A4, 559
STX Finland Cruise, 607
installation, laser head, source and MAG power supply, 609
surface cleaning, 566–7
surface modification, 450–3
appearance of cladding surface, 452
schematic illustration of laser cladding experiment, 451
surface tension model, 540
SUS304, 576
relative physical properties, 587
SUS316L steels, 460
Taguchi method, 523
tandem twin-beam configuration, 455
tensile strength, 243–5
thermal conduction laser absorption analysis, 318
modified zone of borosilicate glass, 319
titanium alloys, 215–47
corrosion, 247
defects, 241–3
laser welding, 231–3
laser welding technologies, 233–8
publication summary, 234–6
mechanical properties, 243–7
microstructure, 238–41
Ti6Al4V welds zones, 240
TiG2 base metal and fusion zone, 241
Tool Trajectory Buffer, 417
laser types, 292–3
NIR laser, 292
laser-induced plasma, 107–8
metal, 106–7
heat input under bead on plate welding, 386
24Laser, 404
apparatus and procedure, 436–7
cross-sectional observations applied to twin-beam laser on A5052, 437
energy distribution of laser spot, 438
laser head created using a prism, 437
laser profile, 439
laser spot profile from two oscillators, 440
schematic of three-beam laser welding system, 438
two laser oscillators, 439
application, 437–56
cutting, 453–6
dissimilar materials welding, 447–50
surface modification, 450–3
welding, 437–47
developments in technology, 434–57
numerical study on molten metal flow, 435–6
thermo-physical properties of materials, 435
ultra short pulse lasers (USPL), 315–27
glass welding fundamentals, 315–21
glass melting structure, 316–17
local melting of glass plate, 317
nonlinear absorption process, 315–16
nonlinear absorptivity, 318–21
overlapped welding of borosilicate glass, 317
thermal conduction model for laser absorption analysis, 318
overlap welding of glass plates, 321–7
ultrasonic welding, 287
excessive gap between two sheets during overlap welding, 198
schematic diagram, 340
weld blowout caused by too much power/energy at workpiece, 198
underfilling, 339–40
underfilled weld bead, 340
unstable resonator, 18
weld length, 565
weld pool dynamics, 115–17
corresponding velocity distribution, 116
weld porosity, 195–7
high power density and low welding speed combination, 199
rapid closing of the keyhole, 199
root of the weld between aluminium alloy and pure copper, 200
weld spatter, 195–7
high power density and low welding speed combination, 199
rapid closing of the keyhole, 199
root of the weld between aluminium alloy and pure copper, 200
dissimilar materials, 447–50
effect of configuration on failure load and strength, 449
effect of configuration on width and penetration depth, 448
failure load of A5052/AZ31, 450
welding and configuration in A5052/Z31, 448
welding configuration in A5052/ AZ31, 450
multi-pass laser welding, 461–2
instability of weld bead shape, 462
parameters, 463–6
build-up welding, 464–6
results of root pass welding, 463
root pass welding, 463
twin-beam laser, 437–47
configurations of twin beam irradiation, 444
effect in high reflective, high thermal and low thermal conductive material, 443
effect of beam distance on porosity formation, 445
effect of configuration on gap tolerance, 445
effect of filler wire on gap tolerance, 446
increasing gap tolerance from changing irradiation point, 446
laser lap welding by tandem twin-beam laser, 446
Q-switched YAG laser and a pulsed YAG laser, 441
schematic illustration of porosity formation, 445
welding beads, 227
bead shape, crack and microstructure of deposited weld, 467
chemical compositions of base metal and welding wires, 466
effect of welding conditions and wire compositions, 467
pulsed laser welding of 6061 aluminium alloy, 196–7
welding deformation, 378–9
longitudinal and transverse direction, 382–5
temperature distribution and restraint in transverse direction, 384
temperature distribution and restraint in welding direction, 383
transient temperature distribution during butt welding, 383
welding distortion, 391–2
effectiveness of multi-beam laser welding to reduce distortions, 392
welding condition on residual stress and distortion, 391
welding set-up with one laser beam, 392
influence on area of fusion zone, 579
influence on area of surface quality, 580
variation on global behaviour of keyhole (KH) and melt pool, 61–7
different regimes respectively labelled R, S, E, P, H, 66
transition thresholds, 65–7
welding speeds below 5 m/min, 61–2
welding speeds between 6 and 8 m/min, 62–4
welding speeds between 9 and 11 m/min, 64
welding speeds between 12 and 19 m/min, 64–5
welding speeds between 20 m/min, 65
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