Inverters
checklist for, 13, 58, 146–147
choosing, 149–151
defined, 3
installation of, 18–19
maintenance, 244–245, 245f
marking of, 34
quality and reliability, 251–252, 252f
standalone systems, 123–126, 196–197
UL listing for, 10, 210
usage, 134–135
warranties for, 49
Irradiance, 67
Irradiance meters, 246
Isc (short-circuit current), 158
I-V curve, 142, 158, 159f
J
Joints and joint sealing, 80
Junction boxes, 34, 40f
L
Labeling requirements
batteries, 211, 212f
building codes and regulations, 41, 99–101,
100f, 223–224
inverters, 210
modules, 210–211
multiple power systems, 135
NEC, 35, 41
power source, 135
safety practices, 34–35, 41, 99–101
system and warning labels, 34, 134–136, 134–135f
Ladders, safety regulations, 27–28, 94–95
Laminate systems, 82
Lead-acid batteries, 5, 32, 112–115, 113f, 117, 166f
Liability insurance coverage, 221
Life expectancy
batteries, 32
inverters, 47
roof-integrated systems, 78
solar tiles, 83
systems, 96–97
Lifts, safety regulations, 94
Lighting, solar outdoor, 136
Lightweight structural glazing system, 79
Linear-supported fastenings, 79
Listed devices, 99
Load management system, 125
Loads
continuous, 17
defined, 54
determination of, 127
direct coupling, 125–126
noncontinuous, 17
Local solar component, 127
Local utility interconnection requirements, 5, 9
Location shading, 73, 75, 75f
Louvers, 80
Low voltage disconnect (LVD), 169–170
M
Main service disconnect, 33
Maintenance of systems, 56–57, 230, 233, 239–246,
241f, 243–245f. See also Operations
and maintenance
Manufacturer specifications, 8
Marking requirements
building codes and regulations, 41, 99–101,
100f, 223–224
conduit, 34
defined, 32
disconnect systems, 36
inverters, 34
modules, 33, 181–182
NEC, 35, 41
safety practices, 32–34
Materials
recommendations, 10, 48–49, 96
for site environment, 3
Maximum power current (Imp), 158
Maximum Power Point (MPP), 123, 159
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT), 110
Maximum power voltage (Vmp), 158
Mechanical system parts, design of, 151–157
Meters
checklist for, 146–147
defined, 13
270 Index
Microclimate, 69
Mismatching
losses, 130
panels and strings, 143
Modified sine-wave inverters, 124
Modules
certification for, 210–211
checklist for, 59
choosing, 149–151
connectors, 189
defined, 30
design of, 158–160
grounding, 41
marking of, 33, 181–182
orientation, 3, 9, 66, 71
safety issues, 30–32
standalone systems, 110
tracking, 187–188
wiring, 182–187, 182–187t, 182f
Monitoring system
operating data and presentation, 249–250
performance, 235–239, 247
Mounting materials, 155–156
Moveable solar shading devices, 80
MPP (Maximum Power Point), 123, 159
MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking), 110
Mullion-transom stick system, 79
Multimeters, 246
Multiple power systems, labels, 135
Multi-wire branch circuits, 109
N
National Electrical Code (NEC)
ampere ratings, 197
arrays, 191
battery safety, 31, 112
charge controllers, 168
compliance with, 4
disconnect systems, 199–200, 201, 214
generators, 122, 170–171
ground-fault protection, 190
grounding equipment, 41, 165–166, 192–195, 214
jumpers, 235–236
labeling and marking requirements, 35, 41, 224
overcurrent protection, 17, 40
overview, 95–96, 148–149
panel boards, 171
roof cables, 17–18
safety practices and, 24–25, 39–41
scope and purpose of, 98–99
solar photovoltaic systems, 210–211
workspace requirements, 29, 97–98
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA), 69
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 69
Neighborhood concerns, 216–217
Net metering, 217
New structures, electrical demand assessment, 72
Nickel-cadmium batteries, 32
NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration), 69
Noncontinuous loads, 17
Non-habitable building requirements, 38
NREL (National Renewable Energy Laboratory), 69
O
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA), 89–95
electrical safety, 92–93
falls, protection from, 93–94
general safety, 89–90
ladders, 94–95
lifts, 94
occupational health, 90–91
overview, 24–25, 89
personal protection equipment, 91–92
scaffolding, 94
stairways, 94–95
tool safety, 92
OCPDs (overcurrent protection devices), 163–164
One-line drawings, 209, 210f
On-site survey, 69–70
Open-circuit voltage (Voc), 158
Operations and maintenance, 229–254
behavior of system, long-term, 251
breakdowns and faults, 232–233, 232f
data monitoring and presentation, 249–250
guarantees, 231–232
Index 271
Internet-based system evaluation, 250
inverters, quality and reliability of, 251–252, 252f
maintenance, 230, 233, 239–246, 241f, 243–245f
operating data monitoring and presentation,
249–250
overview, 229–230
performance inspection and monitoring,
235–239, 247
presentation and visualization, 250–251
programming equipment, 234–235
safety practices, 24–32
site components, 233–234
subsystems, 233–234, 233f
system design and, 56–57
testing, 234–235, 234f
troubleshooting, 239–240
Web-based data transmission and evaluation, 250
Orientation of system, 3, 9, 66, 71
OSHA. See Occupational Safety and
Health Administration
Outdoor lighting, solar, 136
Outlet devices, overcurrent protection, 17
Overcurrent protection. See also Circuit breakers;
Fuses
checklist for, 60
description of, 197–199, 198–199f
NEC code, 17, 40
permit information, 213
Overcurrent protection devices (OCPDs), 163–164
P
Panels. See Arrays
Parallel connections, 142
Pathway requirements, 35–37
Peak sun hours, 67
Performance inspection and monitoring,
235–239, 247
Permits
guidelines, small-scale systems, 208–215,
209–210f
requirements, 52–53, 220
securing, 215–216
Personal fall arrest systems (PFAS), 27
Personal protection equipment (PPE), 28, 91–92
Photovoltaic façades, 80
Photovoltaic modules. See Arrays
Photovoltaic systems, 1–22
as-built drawings, 224, 225f
California style installation, 10–11
checklist, 145–148
design evolution of, 205–227
design guidelines, 2–5
efficiency determination, 127–128
grid-connected system installation, 15
grid connecting, 217–218
HOA concerns, 216–217
inspection guidelines, 206–207, 207f
inspections, 222–224
installation preparation, 15–19
installation recommendations, 9–10
installation stages, 5–9
insurance requirements, 221–222
overview, 205–206
permit guidelines, small-scale systems, 208–215,
209–210f
permit information, 214–215, 220
permit securing, 215–216
top performance installation, 11–15
utility interconnections, 219–221, 219f
warranties, 220–221
Photovoltaic technology, 139–173
balance of systems locations and layout, 145
building survey and system checklist, 145–148
charge controllers, 168–170
generators, 170–171
overview, 139–140
point-of-utility connections, 171
shading and shading checklists, 140–145, 140f
standby system panels, 171
system design, determining, 148–168
Point fastenings, 79
Point of interconnection, interactive system, 135
Point-of-utility connections, 171
Pole-mounted systems, 81
Power panel, 106, 107f
Power source
labels, 135
multiple, 201
272 Index
Power tools, 28
PPE (personal protective equipment), 28, 91–92
Preparation for installation, 50–51
Presentation
operating data, 249–250
visualization, 250–251
Programming equipment, 234–235
Project walk-through, 7
Property damage insurance, 220–221
Q
Quality-assurance program, 7
R
Raceways, 34
Rack-mounted arrays, 81–82, 155
Racks, for batteries, 31
Receptacles, 108
Rechargeable batteries, 110
Recognized devices, 99
Recycling, batteries, 121
Refractive index hydrometers, 246
Relational database systems, 250
Residential systems, safety requirements, 36–37
Roof-integrated systems, 78
Roof-mounted systems
access points, 35–36
cable installations on, 17–18
checklist for, 60
design of, 152–155, 152–155f
installation options, 77–82
tile or shingle cutting, 17
S
Safety nets, 27
Safety practices, 23–45. See also Electrical safety;
National Electrical Code; Occupational Safety and
Health Administration
access requirements, 35–37
for batteries, 31, 98, 112, 166–168
commercial buildings, 37
connecting systems, 24–32
DC conductors, 37–38
disconnect systems, 40, 40f, 108
general safety, 89–90
ground-mounted arrays, 38–40
labeling requirements, 34–35, 41, 99–101
ladders, 27–28, 94–95
lifts, 94
marking requirements, 32–34
non-habitable building requirements, 38
operations and maintenance, 24–32
overview, 23–24
pathway requirements, 35–37
smoke ventilation requirements, 35–37
testing and, 41–42
Scaffolding, safety regulations, 94
Sealed batteries, 114
Sealed cells, 31
Sealing joints, 80
Self-shading, 75–76, 75f
Series connections, 142
Series controllers, 123
Series string, 143
Service entrance section (SES), 19, 19f, 146
Service guarantees, 10
Shade/shading
analysis of, 76–77, 141
analysis tools, 72f, 77
calculation of, 4
cells, 142–144
checklists, 140f, 144–145
considerations, 140–145, 140f, 144f
effect, 69
limiting, 156
types of, 72–76
Shadow types, 73
Shingles, roof, 17
Short-circuit current (Isc), 158
Shunt controllers, 123
Side-of-pole mounts, 81
Signage requirements, 223–224
Signoffs, 57, 220
Sine-wave inverters, 124
Site issues
assessments, 3, 7, 50f
components, 233–234
diagrams, 208–209, 209f
Index 273
materials and placement, 3
on-site survey, 69–70
requirements, 66–72
sun path diagrams, 76–77
Sizing
arrays, 126–134
batteries, 120–121
conductors, 163–164
disconnect, 160
wiring worksheet, 132–133f, 132
Sludging, batteries, 118
Smoke detectors, 108
Smoke ventilation requirements, 37
SOC (state of charge), 116
Solar batteries, 112–114
Solar component, local, 127
Solar noon, 69
Solar outdoor lighting, 136
Solar path, 73, 73f, 76–77
Solar protection devices for glass buildings, 80
Solar shades, 83
Solar tiles, 82–83
Solar window, 69
Source circuit strings, 12
Square-wave inverters, 125
Stairways, safety regulations, 27, 94–95
Standalone systems, 105–138
array sizing, 126–134
batteries in, 110–118, 113f
battery installation and maintenance, 118–119
battery sizing, 120–121
charge controllers, 122–123
described, 67, 106
distribution systems, 106–109
generators, 122–123
inverters, 123–126, 134–135, 196–197
modules in, 110
overview, 105–106
planning and designing, 109–110
Standard test conditions (STC), 159
Standby system panels, 171
State of charge (SOC), 116
Strings/stringing
cable housing, 18
circuits, 12
considerations, 142–144
defined, 3
wiring, 18, 232
Subsystems, operations and maintenance,
233–234, 233f
Sulfation, 117
Sun hours, 67
Sun path diagrams, 73, 73f, 76–77
Support structures, 79
Survey, building, 145–148
System design
arrays, 131–132
batteries, 112–114
determination of, 148–168
electrical system parts, 157–168
guidelines, 2–5
mechanical system parts, 151–157
planning, 50–56, 69f, 109–110
systems approach, 7
System shading, 73
T
Technology. See Photovoltaic technology
Temperature
ambient correction factors, 182,
183–185t
conductor ratings, 186–187t
conduit fill corrections, 160–162
Temperature-compensating hydrometers, 116
Temporary shading, 72–73, 74
Terminals, connecting, 188
Testing
checkout, 9
equipment, 99
inverter startup, 13
safety practices and, 41–42
system, 14, 234–235, 234f
Thermal insulation, 79
Tiles, roof, 17
Tilt angles, 71
Tools
hand and power, 28
maintenance, 245–247
274 Index
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