integral plus zero-pole compensation 1149

lag compensation 1149

lead compensation 1149

PI compensation 1149

PID notch filter type 1149–1150

transient behavior and stability 1149

Linear integrated circuit voltage regulators 

applications 668

basic connection 666, 666f

definition 665–666

LM337 adjustable negative voltage regulator 667–668, 667f

LM317 adjustable positive voltage regulator 667, 667f

79XX series fixed negative voltage regulator 667, 667t, 667f

78XX series fixed positive voltage regulator 666, 666f, 667t

78XX series regulator with external pass transistor 668, 668f

Linear power regulators 275

Linear regulators 

advantages and disadvantages 660–661

IC voltage regulators 

applications 668

basic connection 666, 666f

definition 665–666

LM337 adjustable negative voltage regulator 667–668, 667f

LM317 adjustable positive voltage regulator 667, 667f

79XX series fixed negative voltage regulator 667, 667t, 667f

78XX series fixed positive voltage regulator 666, 666f, 667t

78XX series regulator with external pass transistor 668, 668f

series voltage regulator 

circuit diagram 659, 660–661f, 661

current-limiting method 663, 664–665f

Darlington-connected amplifier 662, 662f

discrete component series regulator 662–663, 662f

emitter-to-collector voltage 661

op-amp series regulator 662–663, 663f

output voltage 661

overload protection 663

pass transistor 659

safe operation area 661

zener diode regulator 661

shunt voltage regulator 

circuit diagram 659, 660f, 663–664, 665f

circuit operation 663–664

common-emitter configuration in parallel 665, 666f

pass transistor 659

short-circuit protection 665

Linear series voltage regulator 

circuit diagram 659, 660–661f, 661

current-limiting method 663, 664–665f

Darlington-connected amplifier 662, 662f

discrete component series regulator 662–663, 662f

emitter-to-collector voltage 661

op-amp series regulator 662–663, 663f

output voltage 661

overload protection 663

pass transistor 659

safe operation area 661

zener diode regulator 661

Linear shunt voltage regulator 

circuit diagram 659, 660f, 663–664, 665f

circuit operation 663–664

common-emitter configuration in parallel 665, 666f

pass transistor 659

short-circuit protection 665

Line-commutated controlled rectifiers 

commutation 

DC voltage regulation curves 243, 243f

equivalent circuit for converter 243, 243f

overlap angle 242–243, 243–244f

overlap time 241–242

cycloconverters 251, 251–252f

dual converters 250–251, 250f

frequency link systems 264, 265f

Graetz bridge 

current waveforms 240, 241f

load average voltage 238–240

parallel connection 238–240

series connection 238–240, 239f

transformer rating 240

voltage waveforms 240, 240f

half controlled bridge converter 240–241, 241f

harmonic distortion 244

harmonic reduction 

current-controlled hunt active power filter 246, 246f

DC ripple reinjection technique 245–246, 246f

48-pulse operation 245–246, 246f

passive filter for one phase 244, 245f

twelve-pulse rectifier 244–245, 245f

harmonic standards 251, 252t

in HVDC power transmission 

vs. ac systems 247–248

asynchronous systems, interconnections 248

circuit and unilinear diagram 248, 249f

inverter side 249, 249f

rectifier side 248, 249f

in machine drives 

DC machine drive with six-pulse rectifier 246, 247f

self-controlled synchronous motor drive 246, 247f

supersynchronous cascade 247, 248f

torque control 247

power factor 243–244

six-pulse/double star rectifier 

AC current waveforms 236, 237f

direct voltage 235–236

with interphase connection 237–238, 237–239f

thyristor side windings 235–236, 236f

three-phase half-wave rectifier 

AC current waveforms 234–235, 236f

DC current waveforms 233, 235f

firing angle 233–234, 234f

gating delay 233, 234f

load average voltage 233–234

topology 233, 234f

Line-commutated single-phase controlled rectifiers 

applications 

single-phase dual-converter drive 217, 217f

two-quadrant dc drive 215, 217f

uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) 215, 216f

biphase half-wave rectifier 210, 212f

disadvantages 217

input current analysis 211–213, 213f

inverting mode operation 214–215, 216f

load time constant over current ripple 211, 212f

load voltage with resistive load 210

power factor 214

single-phase bridge rectifier 

fully controlled bridge rectifier 211, 213f

half-controlled bridge rectifier 211, 213f

voltage and current waveforms 211, 213f

single-phase half-wave rectifier 

with inductive-active load 210, 211f

load average voltage 209–210

with resistive-inductive load 210, 211f

single-thyristor rectifier with resistive load 209, 210f

thyristor commutation process 214, 215f

Line-frequency phase-controlled rectifiers 76

Line impedance stabilization network (LISN) 1070–1071, 1070–1071f, 1385, 1385f

Line-interactive UPS systems 644, 645f

Line-preferred UPS  See Standby UPS

Liquefied hydrogen 1095

Litz wire 

bundle-level skin effect 586–587, 586f

copper utilization factor 587, 587f

manufacturing process 585–586

proximity losses 586, 586f

strand-level external proximity effect 587, 587f

structure 585–586, 586f

LM337 adjustable negative voltage regulator 667–668, 667f

LM317 adjustable positive voltage regulator 667, 667f

Load-dump transient 1069

Load resonant converters (LRCs) 

parallel resonant converters 357–359, 361–363f

series-parallel resonant converter 359, 363f

series resonant converters 355–357, 359–361f

Lookup table (LUT) 1432

Low-dropout voltage (LDO) regulators 275

Low-pressure discharge lamps 688

Low-pressure sodium lamps 689

LPF 1348, 1348f

LRCs  See Load resonant converters (LRCs)

LTT  See Light-triggered thyristor (LTT)

Lundell alternator model 

alternator output power vs. operating point 1078

permanent magnets 1079

simple electric model 1078, 1078f

structure and circuitry 1077, 1078f

switched-mode rectifier 1079–1080, 1080f

third-harmonic booster diodes 1079, 1079f

twin-rotor 1079

Mader-Horn linear model 697, 697f

Magnetomotive forces (MMFs) 1318

Mass rapid transit (MRT) 31

Matrix converters (MC) 7, 417–418

advantages 437–438

applications 

dc link VSC 451

EconoMac matrix converter module 450–451, 450f

generalized scalar PWM (GSPWM) technique 451

higher voltage transfer ratio 451

industrial drive 449–450, 450f

integrated matrix converter motor 451

matrix converter-fed adjustable speed drives 451

medium-voltage converter features 449–450

multilevel and multicell matrix converters 449–450, 450f

power electronic building block (PEBB) configuration 450–451

ride-through module 451

three-phase open-end winding ac machine drive 451

three-phase Z-source matrix converter 451, 452f

bidirectional fully controlled switches 437–438

commutation and protection issues 

bidirectional switch configurations 443

experimental waveforms 444, 444f

four-stepped commutation 443

ride-through capability 444

safe commutation scheme 443, 443f

semisoft current commutation 443, 444f

three-phase single-stage LC filter 444

voltage commutation scheme 443

high frequency linked single-phase to three-phase matrix converters 446–447, 447f

indirect matrix converters 446, 446f

multilevel matrix converter 

four-quadrant dc link H-bridge switching cells 444–445, 445f

MMMC topology 445–446, 445f

operation and control 

control implementation 443

controllable IDF 439

direct control method 443

space vector modulation (SVM) approach 439, 441–443, 442f

unity IDF 439

universal power converter 439

Venturini method 438t, 439–441

output phase voltage waveforms 439, 440f

power circuit diagram 437f, 438

single-phase matrix converters 446, 446f

sparse matrix converter 446, 446f

three-phase/three-phase matrix converter switching combinations 438–439, 438t

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) 737–739, 738f

automated techniques 773

CMPPT 772

constant reference 772

function 771

ICT 771–773, 772f

load characteristics 788, 789f

PAO method 771, 771f

power feedback control 771

power/voltage characteristics 788, 788f

VMPPT 772

voltage feedback control 771

McMurray snubber 369–370, 371f

McMurray snubber with energy recovery 369–370, 371f

MCT  See MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT)

Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) 1100

Metal halide lamps 689

Metal hydrides 1095

Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) 

power transistor 24

Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFET) 1442

avalanche transistor driver 601, 602f

damping factor 600

electronic symbol 599–600, 600f

equivalent gate capacitor 600

gate resistor 601

ON MOSFET 600

off-state 600

parasitic nonlinear capacitances 600, 600f

structure 599–600, 600f

thermal modelling 1442

Metal-oxide-silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET) 95

Miller effect 141

MMC  See Modular multilevel converter (MMC) See also Multilevel modular converter (MMC)

Model identification adaptive controllers (MIACs) 1108

Model predictive control (MPC) 

algorithm 1330, 1330f

cost function 1329–1330, 1330t, 1330f

NPC inverter 

cost function 1332f, 1333

discrete-time models 1331–1332, 1332f

future load back EMF 1332

simulation results 1331f, 1333, 1333t, 1333f

system model 1331, 1331–1332f, 1331t

RL load 1328–1329, 1329f

switching states 1328, 1328–1329f

33-level input switched inverter 

cost function 1335

discrete-time model 1335

mismatch filter inductance errors 1336–1337, 1337f

output current 1334–1335, 1335f

overview 1333, 1334t, 1334f

steady-state performance 1335, 1336f

system parameters 1335, 1336t

transient response 1336, 1336f

voltage 1335

three-phase VSI 1327–1328, 1328f

Model reference adaptive controllers (MRACs) 1108

Modular multilevel converter (MMC) 

advantages 396, 396f, 397t

circuit configuration 391, 391f

circulating current control 394, 395f

disadvantages 396–397

multicarrier modulation techniques 406, 407–409f

single-phase equivalent circuit 392, 392f

SM capacitor voltage balancing 393, 393–394f

states and current paths, half-bridge SMs 391–392, 392f

Module integrated inverter 804, 805f

Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) 1097–1098, 1098f

MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) 50, 604, 604f

cross section 67–68, 68f

DG-EST 68

equivalent circuit and switching characteristics 68, 69f

EST 68

vs. IGBT 68–69

overcurrent protection 70

paralleling 70

vs. power BJT 68–69

vs. power MOSFET 68–69

simulation model 70–71

snubbers 70, 70f

turn-on and turn-off 68–69

MOSFET  See Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFET)

MOS turn-off (MTO) thyristor 71–72, 72f, 604, 604f

Motor control 

current source inverter 77, 79f

cycloconverter control 77, 79f

GTO chopper 77, 78f

inverter control 77

single-/three-phase converter control 77

square wave/PWM VSI 77, 79f

voltage source inverter 77

Motor drives 

block diagram 946–947, 947f

DC motor drives 

characteristics 947–949, 948f

commutator brush 947

drive system 952–953, 952–953f

operational factors 953

PWM switching converter drive 950–952, 951–952f

thyristor converter 949–950, 949–951f

GaA and PSO 

all-wheel electric vehicle drive system 1272–1273, 1273f

ANN 1280, 1280f

diesel-driven AC generator 1274

digital dynamic simulation model 1280–1289

dynamic error driven control 1276–1279

FLC system 1280, 1281t, 1281f

four-wheel permanent magnet DC motors 1270–1271

fuel cell stacks 1272f, 1274–1276, 1275–1276f

GP-EM-EE devices  See (Green plug/energy management/energy economizer (GP-EM-EE))

GPF scheme 1276

induction motor 1268–1269, 1268–1270f, 1271t, 1272f

PV array 1274, 1274f

renewable green energy sources 1271–1272

self-tuned variable structure sliding mode 1279–1280, 1280f

unified DC-AC utilization scheme 1273–1274

induction 

cycloconverter 959, 960f

slip power control 953f, 955–956, 955–956f

SPWM inverter 956–959, 957–959f

stator control 954–955, 954f

steady-state equivalent circuit 953–954, 953f

variable current–variable frequency (I–f) control 957f, 959–961, 960–961f

vector controls 961–966, 963–966f

permanent-magnet brushless DC 

AC machines 981, 981f

current/torque control 984–988, 984t, 985–989f

electric machine operation 981–982, 982f

electronic commutation 982–984, 982–983f, 984t, 985f

example 980

Hall sensors 984t, 987f, 988–990, 989–990t, 989f

Nd-Fe-B 980

power electronics 980

torque vs. speed control 981

permanent-magnet synchronous 

circumferential-magnet 975, 976f

interior-magnet 975, 975f

sine-wave motor 975f, 977–980, 977–980f

surface-magnet motor 970f, 975–977, 975–976f

power electronic converter-driven motor 946, 946t

servo drives 

control-loop design issues 993–996

examples 991

inner current loops 992–993

inner torque-control loops 993

performance of 991

sensors 993

servo motors 991–992, 991–992f

SR motor drive 

advantages 1005, 1005t

aligned position 1004

applications 1005

bifilar type inverter circuit 1006, 1006f

chopping-mode control 1010f, 1012, 1012f

design options 1005, 1006f

disadvantages 1005, 1005t

four-phase topology 1004, 1004f

linear model 1007–1011, 1007–1011f

magnetic saturation 1011–1012, 1011f

maximum speed 1005–1006

nonlinear model 1011–1012, 1011f

number of motor phases 1004f, 1005

number of power devices 1006

position sensing 1013–1014

single-pulse mode control 1011f, 1013

split-dc-supply-type inverter circuit 1006f, 1007

two-switch-inverter-type circuit 1006f, 1007

unaligned position 1004–1005, 1005f

stepper motor 

acceleration-deceleration profiles 1003–1004, 1004f

bifilar windings 1001–1002f, 1002

bipolar drive circuits 1002, 1002f

hybrid 998–999, 998f

microstepping 1002–1003, 1002–1003f

multistack variable-reluctance motor 997–998, 998f

permanent-magnet 999, 999f

single- and multi-step responses 1000–1001, 1000f

single-stack motors 996–997, 997f

unipolar drive circuits 1001–1002, 1001f

variable-reluctance motor 997f, 999, 999f

working principle 996

synchronous motor drives 

CSI drive 968–970, 969–970f

I is in phase with E_f 972, 972f

operation with I lagging E_f 971–972, 972f

operation with I leading E_f 972–973, 972–973f

steady-state equivalent-circuit 966–967, 966–967f

vector control 973–975, 974f

voltage-source inverter 967–968, 968f

synchronous reluctance 

block diagram 1018–1019, 1019f

control strategies and parameters 1017–1018, 1018f

conventional synchronous 1014

drive performance 1018

fiber-spinning industry 1014

mathematical modeling 1015f, 1016–1017, 1018f

maximum torque per ampere 1018

principles 1014–1015, 1015f

structure 1015–1016, 1016f

MPC  See Model predictive control (MPC)

MPMC  See Multiphase matrix converters (MPMC)

MPPT  See Maximum power point tracking (MPPT)

MRCs  See Multi-resonant converters (MRCs)

MTDC system  See Multiterminal DC (MTDC) system

Multifunction ceramic (MFC) capacitors 1386

Multilevel inverters 

basic principle 317, 319f

current source-based multilevel topologies 

duality 320

switch states 320–321, 322t

topology 320–321, 322f

modulation techniques 

ASD based on three-phase three-level VSI topology 326, 326f

reactive power and current harmonics compensator 326–327, 326f

space-vector modulation 325–326, 325f

SPWM technique 321–325, 323–325f

voltage source-based multilevel topologies 317–318

cascade inverter 320, 321t, 321f

flying capacitor inverter 319–320, 320t, 320f

neutral-point-clamped inverter 318–319, 319t, 319f

Multilevel modular converter (MMC) 897, 898f

Multilevel power converters 

advantages 385

back-to-back diode-clamped converter 

series-parallel connection 398–399, 398f

six-level diode-clamped back-to-back converter structure 398–399, 399f

cascaded H-bridges 386

advantages 387

disadvantages 388

output phase voltage waveform 386, 387f

single-phase structure 386, 386f

three-phase wye-connection structure 387, 387f

with transformers 388, 388f

diode-clamped multilevel inverter 

advantages 389

application 389

disadvantages 389

line voltage waveform 389, 389f

three-phase six-level structure 388–389, 388f

voltage levels and switch states 388–389, 389t

disadvantages 385

flying-capacitor multilevel inverter 389–391, 390f, 390t

mixed-level hybrid multilevel converter 397, 398f

modular mutilevel inverter structures  See (Modular multilevel converter (MMC))

P2 topology 397, 397f

pulse-width modulation strategies  See (Pulse-width modulation (PWM))

soft-switched multilevel converter 398, 398f

Multimodular matrix converters (MMMCs) 445–446, 445f

Multiobjective genetic optimization search algorithm (MOGA) 1266, 1266f

Multiobjective optimization (MOO) 1265–1266

Multiobjective particle swarm optimization search algorithm (MOPSO) 1266–1268, 1267f

Multiphase AC-AC converters 

AC voltage controllers 

fully controlled voltage converters 462

phase-controlled converters 462

classification 462–463, 463f

cycloconverters 462

forced commutated cycloconverter 463–464, 508 See also Multiphase matrix converters (MPMC))

naturally commutated cycloconverter 463–464, 508

6-pulse cycloconverter 462–463

3-pulse cycloconverter 462–463

12-pulse cycloconverter 462–463

direct matrix converters 459

indirect matrix converter 459

matrix converters 462

multiphase frequency changers 463–464, 463f

Multiphase AC-DC converters 458–459

bidirectional system 461

classification 461, 461f

multipulse AC-DC converters 

five-phase controlled full wave bridge rectifier 467–470

five phase uncontrolled full wave bridge rectifier 464–467

multipulse rectifiers 470–473

single-way multiphase systems topologies 474–475

six-phase AC to DC converters 475–477

solid-state AC-DC converters 464

unidirectional system 461

Multiphase DC-AC converters 

carrier-based PWM 

experimental implementation 491

fifth harmonic injection PWM 488

offset/triangular zero-sequence injection PWM 488–489, 489f

space-vector PWM 489–491, 508

SPWM 488

with zero sequence signal 486–488

classifications 461–462, 462f

five-phase induction motor drive 462, 462f

five-phase voltage-source inverter 477–486

multiphase adjustable-speed drives 461–462

multiphase DC-AC inverters 461–462

seven-phase VSI  See (Seven-phase voltage source inverter)

Multiphase DC-AC inverters 461–462

cascaded H-bridge 462

diode clamped topology 462

five-phase VSI 462

flying capacitor topology 462

impedance-source inverters 462

quasi impedance-source inverters 462

seven-phase VSI 462

six-phase inverter 462

Multiphase DC-DC converters 

advantages 526

classification 461, 462f

coupled inductor 

modes of operation 524–526, 525f

ripple cancelation 524

transient response 524

two-level coupled inductor multiphase boost converter 524, 525f

multiphase boost converter 

modes of operation 523–524, 523f, 525f

topology 523, 523f

multiphase interleaved buck topology 

discontinuous conduction mode 520

inductor current cancelation 516–517, 518f

interleaved timing 516–517

modes of operation 517–519

n-phase interleaved buck converter 516–517, 517f

output current ripple with duty ratio 520–522, 521f

small-signal analysis 520, 521f

state-space averaging 519–520

two-phase buck converter topology 517, 518f

synchronous multiphase buck topology 522, 522f

voltage regulator module (VRM) 516

Multiphase matrix converters (MPMC) 459, 463–464 See also Multiphase AC-AC converters

carrier-based PWM scheme 509

direct-duty-ratio-based PWM 509, 515

direct multiphase matrix converters (DMMC) 508, 516

even-phase input and odd-phase output MC 514, 514f

future prospects 516

indirect multiphase matrix converters (IMMC) 508, 516

input voltage optimization 511–514f, 512–513

odd-phase input and even-phase output MC 513–514, 514f

simplified modulation strategy 514–515, 515–516f

sinusoidal carrier-based modulation 515

space-vector PWM technique 509, 515–516, 517f

target output voltages 511–512, 511–512f

voltage transfer ratio 

maximum voltage transfer ratio (VTRmax) 509

unutilized region 509–511, 510–511f, 511t

year-wise development 509, 509f

Multiphase power converters 

AC-AC converters  See (Multiphase AC-AC converters)

AC-DC converters  See (Multiphase AC-DC converters)

advantages 457–458

applications 457

DC-AC converters  See (Multiphase DC-AC converters)

DC-DC converters  See (Multiphase DC-DC converters)

multiphase DC-AC voltage-source inverter 459

multiphase drive 458

multiphase electric machines 458

multiphase generators 458–459

multiphase matrix converters 459–460

multiple three-phase drive 458, 458f

vs. single-phase converters 460

symmetrical n-phase motor 458

three-phase drive 458, 458f

Multiple string DC/DC converter 804, 804f

Multiple string inverter 804, 805f

Multipole synchronous generators 746, 747f

Multipulse rectifiers 

12-pulse parallel-type controlled rectifier 472–473, 473f

12-pulse series type controlled rectifier 471–472, 471f, 473f

uncontrolled/controlled rectifier 470, 470f

Multi-resonant converters (MRCs) 

buck ZVS-MRC 349, 352, 352–353f

constant frequency buck MRC 352–355, 354f

constant-frequency multiresonant switch 352–355, 354f

family 352, 354f

ZC-MR switch 349, 352f

ZV-MR switch 349, 352f

Multiterminal DC (MTDC) system 

control methods 865, 865f

parallel tap 864–865, 865f

series tap 864, 864f

Naturally commutated cycloconverter (NCC) 427, 436–437, 463–464

N-channel MCT 71

Nearest level control (NLC) 413–414

Neural-fuzzy controller (NFC) 

algorithm 1240–1242, 1241–1242f

defuzzification layer 1240

input layer 1239

input membership layer 1239–1240, 1240f

network architecture 1239, 1239f

rule layer 1240

Neutral-point-clamped (NPC) inverter 

active filters 1343, 1346f

cost function 1332f, 1333

discrete-time models 1331–1332, 1332f

future load back EMF 1332

power electronic module 164

simulation results 1331f, 1333, 1333t, 1333f

system model 1331, 1331–1332f, 1331t

NFC  See Neural-fuzzy controller (NFC)

Nondominated sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA) 1266, 1266f

Nonlinear autoregressive moving average with exogenous input (NARMAX) model 1255–1257, 1257f

Nonresonant electronic ballasts 692–693, 693f

North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) 729

Nuclear power plants 757, 757f

Ocean energy harvesting 

components 747–748

energy conversion 747

kinetic energy 748–749

near-shore technologies 

air-driven turbines based harvesting method 751–753, 753f

channel/reservoir/turbine based harvesting method 750–751, 752f

ocean tidal energy 753–754, 753–754f

off-shore technologies 

air-driven turbines based off-shore technologies 749–750, 749–750f

direct-drive permanent-magnet linear generator-based buoy applications 750, 751f

Salter cam method 750, 752f

potential energy 748–749

power electronic interfaces 754, 755f

system level diagram 748, 748f

Off-line UPS  See Standby UPS

Ohmic region 33

On-line electric vehicles (OLEVs) 

development of 1124–1125, 1125f

2G OLEV 1125–1126, 1126f

3G OLEV 1126–1127, 1127f

4G OLEV 1127–1128, 1128f

5G OLEV 1128–1130, 1129f

On-line UPS system 643–644, 643–644f

Packaging, thyristors 

capacitive coupling 54–55

characteristics 54

chemical degradation 55

CTE values 55, 55t

electric isolation 54

half-bridge module 55

long life and reliability 55

press packs 54, 54f

stud-mount 54, 54f

thermal conductivity 54, 55t

thermal performance 54

PAO method  See Perturb and observe (PAO) method

Parallel power factor corrector (PPFC) 

applications 541

circuit diagram 541, 543f

power process transfer principle 541, 544f

single-stage boost PPFC converter 541, 544f

single-stage flyback PPFC converter 541, 544f

system configurations 540f, 541

Parallel resonant converters (PRCs) 

continuous conduction mode 

ω_S > ω_r 359, 362–363f

ω_S < ω_r 359, 362f

discontinuous conduction mode 359, 362f

half-bridge configuration 357–359, 361f

Pareto front 1265

Pareto-optimal solution set 1265

Particle swarm optimization (PSO) 

vs. GA 1262, 1262t

MOPSO 1266–1268, 1267f

motor drives 

all-wheel electric vehicle drive system 1272–1273, 1273f

ANN 1280, 1280f

diesel-driven AC generator 1274

digital dynamic simulation model 1280–1289

dynamic error driven control 1276–1279

FLC system 1280, 1281t, 1281f

four-wheel permanent magnet DC motors 1270–1271

fuel cell stacks 1272f, 1274–1276, 1275–1276f

GP-EM-EE devices  See (Green plug/energy management/energy economizer (GP-EM-EE))

GPF scheme 1276

induction motor 1268–1269, 1268–1270f, 1271t, 1272f

PV array 1274, 1274f

renewable green energy sources 1271–1272

self-tuned variable structure sliding mode 1279–1280, 1280f

unified DC-AC utilization scheme 1273–1274

SOPSO 

algorithm 1264–1265, 1265f

basic search method 1264, 1264f

numerical and qualitative problems 1263–1264

structure of 1264

Partners for Advanced Transit and Highways (PATH) program 1124, 1125f

Partnership for a new generation of vehicles (PNGV) 1084

Passive power factor correctors 

advantages 535

disadvantages 535

in high-power-line applications 533–534

inductive-input PF corrector 534, 534f

low-pass inductive filter 535, 535f

series-tuned LC harmonic filter 533–534, 534f

PEC  See Power electronics converters (PEC)

Periodical sampling (PS) method 258, 259f

Permanent-magnet alternating current (PMAC) motors 

algorithm 1312–1313, 1313f

back EMF 1309, 1309f

controller requirements 1311, 1312f

mathematical model 1309

motor-control system 1310–1311, 1310–1312f

torque generation 1309–1310, 1310f

Permanent-magnet brushless DC motor drives 

AC machines 981, 981f

current/torque control 

dead time and flyback diodes 987–988, 987–989f

H-bridge switching 986, 986f

hysteresis band 985, 985f

inductances 985

low resistance windings 984

position and current sensors 986, 987f

PWM 985–986, 985–986f

semiconductor switches 987, 987f

sequence of connections 984t, 986

switching losses 986

electric machine operation 981–982, 982f

electronic commutation 

conductor and rotor 982–983, 982f

“H-” bridge circuit 983, 983f

switching circuit 983–984, 983f, 984t, 985f

three-phases 983, 983f

windings 983, 983f

example 980

Hall sensors 

current sensing 984t, 987f, 989–990, 990t

operation of 988–989, 989t, 989f

switching signals 990, 990t

Nd-Fe-B 980

power electronics 980

torque vs. speed control 981

Permanent-magnet (PM) motor 1043

Permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) 809

Permanent-magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) 

algorithm 1316–1317, 1317–1318f

circumferential-magnet 975, 976f

controller requirements 1316, 1316f

control topology 1315–1316, 1315–1316f

interior-magnet 975, 975f

mathematical model 1314–1315, 1314f

rotor reference frame 1315

sine-wave motor 

back-emf waveforms 977, 977f

current-controlled drive 978–979, 979f

field weakening 979–980f, 980

IPMSM 975f, 978

MTPA characteristic 979, 979f

rotor-position sensors 978

speed-controlled drive 978, 978f

voltage and current limits 979f, 980

surface-magnet motor 

back emf 976, 976f

rotor configuration 975, 975f

sensorless operation 977

trapezoidal-wave motor 970f, 976–977, 976f

wind turbines 744–745, 744f

Perturb and observe (PAO) method 771, 771f

PFC  See Power factor correction (PFC)

Phase-controlled single-phase AC voltage controller 

gating signal requirements 420, 421f

operation with RL-load 419–420, 419f

operation with R-load 419, 419f

power factor and harmonics 421, 421f

principle of operation 419

rms SCR current 420

θ vs. α curves 420, 420f

voltage control characteristics 420, 420f

Phase-controlled three-phase AC voltage controllers 422–425, 423f

Phase disposition PWM (PD-PWM) method 406, 409f

Phase-locked loop (PLL) 1350–1351, 1351f

Phase opposition disposition PWM (POD-PWM) method 406, 409f

Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) 1099

Photo voltaic array (PVA) 1274, 1274f

Photovoltaic (PV) systems 

applications 784

battery sizing 779

charge controllers 

DC–DC converter type charge regulators 788, 788f

series charge regulators 787, 787f

shunt charge regulators 787–788, 787f

DC-AC conversion 778

design procedures 778

DfR 1426, 1427f, 1433, 1434f

dirt and dust 778

effects 734–735

fuel cell 1093

grid-connected system 

block diagrams 773, 773f

centralized inverters 773–774, 774f

components 773–774

grid synchronization 776

islanding mode 776–777

isolated converters 774, 775f

microinverter 773–774, 774f

string inverters 773–774, 774f

transformerless converters 774–776, 775f

hybrid PV systems 786, 786f

MPPT  See (Maximum power point tracking (MPPT))

operation 769–771, 770f

power-conditioning unit 779

quality PV system criteria 778

solar cells 

azimuth, zenith, and elevation angles 769, 769f

current power characteristics 785, 785f

current vs. voltage 784–786, 784–785f

diode current 768

doping technique 768

electric field effect 768, 768f

equivalent circuit 768, 768f, 784, 784f

fill factor 768

maximum power output 768

open-circuit voltage 768

PV generator terms 785, 785f

PV module circuit model 769, 769f

schematic diagram 784, 784f

short-circuit current 768

silicon semiconductor materials 785

temperature effects 785, 785f

stand-alone system  See (Stand-alone PV system)

temperature 778

Piezoelectric ultrasonic motors 1073–1074, 1074f

P-i-N diode 164, 165f

PI/PD-like fuzzy controller 

architecture of 1222, 1223f

fuzzy-PD controller 1224–1225, 1225f

fuzzy-PI system 1223–1224, 1223–1224f

saturation equation 1222–1223

Plasma-based ion implantation (PBII) loads 611, 611f

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) 1024, 1032–1033, 1091

PMSM  See Permanent-magnet synchronous motor (PMSM)

P&O/hill-climbing control 789

Point of common coupling (PCC) 530

Polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEMFC) 1092–1093, 1098–1099, 1098f

Poly-phase diode rectifiers 

six-phase parallel bridge rectifier 

circuit diagram 189, 189f

design parameters 188t, 189

voltage waveforms 189, 189f

six-phase series bridge rectifier 

circuit diagram 188, 188f

design parameters 188t, 189

six-phase star rectifier 

basic circuit 187, 187f

design parameters 188, 188t

Potential barrier 15

Power bipolar transistor 

aluminum metallization 25

BJT 24

buck-boost converter 31, 31f

chopper driver with DC motor 31, 31f

duty cycle 31

MRT 31

PSPICE model 32, 32t

characteristics 21–24

circuit symbols 25, 25f

collector and base currents 25

copper metallization 25

emitter current 24–25

IGBT 24

MOSFET 24

planar NPN BJT structure 24, 24f

power module 166

safe operation area 27, 27f

static characteristics 

absolute voltage limit mechanism 25

active region 26

base current, base-emitter voltage 25, 26f

collector current, collector-emitter voltage 25–26, 26f

Darlington-connected BJTs 26, 26f

primary and second breakdown 26–27

quasi saturation 26, 26f

saturation region 26

switching characteristics 

forward base drive current 28, 29f

with inductive load 28, 28f

under resistive load 27, 28f

transistor base driver circuits 

Baker’s clamp 29, 29f

base command without negative power supply 29, 29f

isolated base drive circuit 29–30, 30f

nonisolated base driver 29, 29f

proportional base drive circuit 30–31, 30f

transformer-coupled base drive with tertiary winding transformer 30, 30f

turn-off snubber network 31, 31f

vertical structure 25, 25f

Power Donut 840

Power electronic circuit 2–3

Power electronic module 

advantages 157–158

design guidelines and considerations 

analog/digital controller 172–173

bypass capacitor 171, 171f

current sensing 172–173

electric design 171

gate driver design 171–172, 172f

gate Kelvin contacts 172, 172–173f

snubbers and clamps 172–173

switching converter specifications based module selection 171

thermal design 171

voltage sensing 172–173

diode/thyristor rectifier 

CIB module 163, 165f

half-bridge, full-bridge, or three-phase power module 163, 164f

NPC module 164

PFC module 164

single-phase full-bridge 163–164, 163f

disadvantage 158

vs. discrete power devices 158, 158f

electro-thermo-mechanical device 157

IGBT half-bridge power module 

cross section 160, 160f

equivalent circuits 158–159, 159f

external components 159–160, 159f

physical structure 158, 159f

manufacturing process 160f

baseplate 162–163

DBC substrate 161–162

die attach 160–161

semiconductor chips 160, 161f

wire bonds 160–162f, 161

power semiconductor devices 

BJT 166

IGBT 166, 166f

MOSFET 165, 165f

P-i-N diode 164, 165f

Schottky diode 164–165, 165f

SiC 166

thyristor 166

reliability 

bond wire lifting 170, 170f

power cycling 170–171

reliability tests 170–171

solder fatigue 170, 170f

thermal cycling 170

thermomechanical stress 170

thermal management 

air cooling 168, 168f

double-sided cooling 169, 169f

equivalent thermal network 167–168, 167f

liquid cooling 168, 168f

physical integration 166–167

power dissipation 166–167

power losses 166–167

thermal cycling 167

Power electronics 

Ampere’s magnetic circuit law 576, 576f

analysis and design tools 

Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws 8, 8–9f

lossless filter design 11

semiconductor devices 9–10, 9t

switching functions 10–11

switch matrix 7–8

applications 1–2

corrosion sensor 12

dc-dc converters 1

hybrid/fully electric vehicle 11–12

inverters 1

rectifiers 1

characteristics 

electric power conversion 2, 2f

reliability objective 3

switch, efficiency objective 2–3

system reliability 2

definition 1

development needs 819–820

energy conversion and management 1

energy systems, electronics, and control 1, 2f

Faraday’s magnetic circuit law 575–576, 575–576f

history 2

hybrid energy systems 820–824

magnetic materials 

amorphous and nanocrystalline materials 572

anomalous loss 573

B-H plot 572–573, 572f

eddy current losses 573

ferrite and powdered materials 572

fringing field effects 575

hot-spun melt magnetic tape materials 575

hysteresis loss 573

iron-based silicon-steel materials 572

magnetic coercivity 572–573

magnetic saturation 573

Mn-Zn ferrites 574–575

nanoparticle-based materials 572

Ni-Zn grades 574–575

power loss density values 574–575, 574f

properties 574t

rapid cooling methods 575

relative permeability 572–573, 575

Steinmetz equation 573–574

tape wound amorphous core materials 572

temperature stability 574

total core loss per unit volume 573

method of energy balance 

average power 6

energy transfer switching circuit 5–6, 6f

polarity reverser 6

switching converter 6–7, 6f

power supplies 4

PV systems 784–806

reluctance and inductance 576–577, 576–577f

single-switch circuits 4–5

transformer design 

basic electric circuit 577, 577f

copper loss 578, 581

core loss 578, 578f, 581

core selection 581

core window area product 579

effective resistance vs. layer thickness 583–584, 583f

fringing effect 584–585, 584–585f

high-frequency Litz wire 585–587, 586–587f

interleaved windings 587, 588f

physical dimensions 577f

proximity effect 582–583, 582–583f

push-pull converter 579–580, 580f, 584, 584f

round conductor 582, 582f

skin effect 582, 582f

winding losses 578, 578f

winding selection 581

window utilization factor 578

wind power systems 806–820

Power Electronics Building Block (PEBB) 1399

Power electronics converters (PEC) 

battery charger 

charging schemes 1054–1055, 1055f

inductive charging 1059–1060, 1059–1060f

integrated charger 1058, 1058–1059f

multistage conversion 1055, 1055f

on-board and off-board charger 1056

single-stage conversion 1055, 1055f

type-I charging 1055–1056

type-II charging 1055–1056

type-III charging 1055–1056

unidirectional and bidirectional charger 1056–1058, 1056–1058f

classification 1044, 1045f

electrified vehicle 

configuration 1047–1048, 1047f

fuel-cell stack 1048–1049, 1048f

plug-in HEV 1047f, 1048

traditional batteries 1048

EPS 

architecture 1044, 1045f

bidirectional dc/dc converter 1044–1047, 1045f

propulsion inverter motor 1046, 1046f

ESS and HES 

active configuration 1050, 1051f

cascaded configuration 1051, 1051f

multiple input configuration 1052–1054, 1052–1054f, 1054t

parallel configuration 1051–1052, 1052f

passive configuration 1050, 1050f

power flow 1049–1050

onboard power processing 1044

operating characteristics 1044, 1044t

requirements 1044

vehicle application 1044, 1045t

Power Electronics Society (PELS) 1398

Power electronic system 2–3

Power factor (PF)  See also Power factor correction (PFC)

for current/voltage distorted waveforms 530–531

definition 530–531

instantaneous drawn current 530–531

instantaneous power source voltage 530–531

Power factor correction (PFC) 

active power factor correctors 

boost corrector 536, 537f

buck-boost corrector 536, 537f

buck corrector 535–536, 536f

Cuk corrector 537, 538f

flyback corrector 538, 538f

forward converter 538–539, 539f

forward-flyback converter 538–539, 539f

Sepic corrector 537, 538f

single-stage quasi Z-source corrector 539–540, 540f

Zeta corrector 537, 538f

CCM shaping technique 553t

AC-DC PFC converter 544, 546f

ACM strategy 546–547, 547f

charge control 549–550, 551f

constant frequency peak current control 549, 549–550f

current waveform 541, 545f

high-power applications 544

hysteresis control 549, 551f

I² average current mode control 547–548, 547f

multiloop controls 544

nonlinear-carrier control 550–551, 551f

variable frequency peak current control 548–549, 548f

voltage control 551–552, 552f

circuit topologies 542f, 543

control techniques 542f, 543

CRM techniques 

advantages 561–563

current waveform 541, 546f

diode reverse-recovery problem 543

disadvantages 561–563

hysteretic control 561

in low-power applications 561–563

VOT control 561–563

cycle control technique 564

DCM input technique 559t

AC-DC power supply 559–560

advantage 552–553

current waveform 541, 545f

low- to medium-level power application 544

PFC capabilities 553–559

single-stage single-switch converter 542

DPFC 564

energy balance 532–533, 532–533f

interleaved method 564

module 164

one-stage scheme 540–541, 540f

passive power factor correctors 

advantages 535

disadvantages 535

in high-power-line applications 533–534

inductive-input PF corrector 534, 534f

low-pass inductive filter 535, 535f

series-tuned LC harmonic filter 533–534, 534f

PPFC  See (Parallel power factor corrector (PPFC))

second-harmonic-injected method 563

single-phase input power waveform 541, 543f

two-stage scheme 540–541, 540f

waveform synthesis method 564

Power handling rating 3

Power IGBT 166, 166f

Power MOSFET 165, 165f

applications 36, 36f

basic structure, vertical N-channel MOSFET 32, 32f

PSPICE model 36, 37t

SOA 36, 36f

static characteristics 33, 33f

active/saturation region 33

cutoff region 33

ohmic region 33

switching characteristics 

drain-to-source voltage 34

equivalent circuit model 33, 33f

input transfer function characteristics 34, 34f

ohmic region, equivalent circuit 34, 34f

turn-off analysis 34f, 35–36, 36f

turn-on analysis 34–35, 34–35f

voltage-controlled current source 33–34

symbols 33, 33f

vertical MOSFET with N-channel created 32, 32f

Power MOS transistors 

cross section, DMOS transistor 90, 90f

cross section, VMOS transistor 90, 90f

disadvantage 90–91

equivalent diagram 90, 91f

IGBT 90–91, 91f

Power rectifier diode 18

Power semiconductor devices 

equivalent electric circuit, thermal design 45–46, 46f

equivalent resistances, nomenclature 45, 46t

equivalent voltage nodes, nomenclature 45, 46t

heatsink thermal design 46–47, 46t, 47f

Power supplies 

definition 659

filtering 659, 660f

rectification 659, 660f

regulation 

linear regulators  See (Linear regulators)

switching regulators 659–661, 660f, 668–684

Power switches 

hard-switching 339, 340f

ideal and practical switching waveforms 339–340, 340f

ZCS 340

ZVS 340

Power thyristor 166

Power transfer (PT) 1114–1115, 1115f

PPFC  See Parallel power factor corrector (PPFC)

PP technology  See Pulsed power (PP) technology

PRCs  See Parallel resonant converters (PRCs)

Predictive control 

block diagram 1325–1326, 1326f, 1372–1374, 1374f

controlled parameters, future behavior 1325–1326

cost function 1326, 1374

current reference generator 1374–1375, 1375f

dc voltage converter 1375

discrete-time model 1374

equivalent circuit 1372, 1374f

MPC 

algorithm 1330, 1330f

cost function 1329–1330, 1330t, 1330f

NPC inverter 1331–1333, 1331t, 1331–1333f, 1333t

RL load 1328–1329, 1329f

switching states 1328, 1328–1329f

33-level input switched inverter 1333–1337, 1334–1337f, 1334t, 1336t

three-phase VSI 1327–1328, 1328f

performance evaluation 1375–1376, 1376–1377f

power converters 1325

system prediction model 1326

types 1326–1327, 1327f

working principle 1326, 1327f

Predictive optimum controllers 

αβ currents 1206

dc capacitor voltage unbalance 1206

non-linear fast predictive optimum control 1205–1206

non-linear predictive optimum control 1203–1205

quadratic cost functional 1206–1207

results 1207–1208, 1207f, 1209f

switching power converter 1202–1203

Proportional-integral (PI) 1149, 1308, 1308f

Proportional-integral derivative (PID) 1149–1150

Proton-exchange membrane (PEM) 1092–1093

Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) 758, 758f

PSO  See Particle swarm optimization (PSO)

Pulsed power forward-type circuit 

circuit diagram 615, 615f

circuit operation 615–616

high-voltage pulse generation 616–617

pulse amplitude 616

pulse mode 615–616

reset mode 616

reset voltage 616

reverse voltage 616, 617f

safety mode 616

theoretical key waveforms 615, 615f

Pulsed power (PP) technology 

applications 593–594

capacitive-type loads 611

in capacitor charging applications 

CCPS 633–634, 634f

high-voltage dc power supply with charging resistor 635, 635f

resonance-charging technique 635–636, 635f

switching converters 636–637, 636–637f

definition 593

inductive-type loads 611

PBII loads 611, 611f

power semiconductors 

generalized cascodes 607, 608f

high-voltage PIN diodes 594–599

high-voltage thyristors 603, 603f

IEGT 602–603

IGBT 602, 602f

JFETs 604–605, 604–605f

LTT 603, 603f

maximum volt-ampere capabilities of current 594, 595f

MOSFET 599–601

nonideal characteristics 594

semiconductor parallel stacks 607–608, 609f

semiconductor series stacks 605–607, 606–608f

wide band gap power semiconductor devices 608–610

resistive-type loads 610–611

solid-state PP topologies  See (Solid-state PP topologies)

Pulse-width modulation (PWM) 11

audio amplifier 1176–1179, 1177–1178f

carrier-based PWM techniques, multilevel 

line-line output voltage 400, 401f

modulation index, level utilization 400–404, 403f, 404t

multicarrier techniques, MMC 406, 407–409f

SFO-PWM 400, 402–403f

subharmonic PWM 400, 402–403f

switching frequency at low modulation indices 404–406, 404t, 405–406f

carrier-based PWM technique, three-phase CSIs 

bipolar PWM technique 296–297, 299f

modulation index 296

normalized carrier frequency 296

SPWM scheme 296

unipolar PWM technique 297

classification 399–400, 399f

DC link current 301–302

generation 1306–1307, 1307f

lighting system 1073

modular multilevel inverter 413–414, 413f

multilevel space vector PWM 

line-line redundancies 411, 411t

multiplexer model, diode-clamped six-level inverter 406–410, 410f

redundant switching states 411–412

sinusoidal reference and inverter output voltage states 411, 411f

voltage space vectors 406–410, 410f

rectifier 1180–1182, 1180–1181f

selective harmonic elimination 

bipolar programmed PWM 413

fundamental switching frequency 412

output waveform, virtual stage PWM control 412–413, 412f

unipolar programmed PWM 413

unipolar switching output waveform 412–413, 413f

sinusoidal PWM, three-phase VSIs 

ac output line voltage 304

dc link voltage 304

ideal waveforms 302–303, 303f

ninth harmonic in phase 302–303

with zero sequence signal injection 304, 305–306f

switching power converters 1148–1149, 1148f

Push-pull converter 279, 279f

PV systems  See Photovoltaic (PV) systems

PWM  See Pulse-width modulation (PWM)

PWM dc-dc push-pull converter 279, 279f

PWM phase-to-phase and phase-to-neutral voltages 256, 257f

PWM voltage-source inverter (PWM-VSI) 

active filters 1342

advantages 933

communication 935–936

control strategies 934–935, 935t

vs. cycloconverter and LCI 933t

features 923–924, 924t

medium voltage PWM-VSI 933–934, 934f, 934t

PWM techniques 936, 936f

PWM waveforms 

bearing current 937

common mode reactor 938

effect on cables 936

effect on EMC/insulation/earthing 936–937

effect on motor 936

electromagnetic compatibility 937, 938t

motor insulation 937

output line reactor 937–938

PWM (dV/dt) filter 938

RC network at motor terminals 938

sine-wave filter 938, 939t

supply front-end bridges 938–940, 939t

Quadrature-encoder-pulse (QEP) 1316, 1316f

Quasi impedance-source inverters (qZSI) 462

Quasi-resonant converters (QRCs) 

EP-QR converters, boost PFC circuit 

design procedure 365–368

drain-source voltage and current 365, 367f

hard-switched circuit 361, 365f

idealized waveforms 361, 366f

operating modes 361–365, 366f

soft-switched DC-DC flyback converter 368, 369f

soft switching 361, 365f

ZCS bidirectional flyback DC-DC converter 368, 369f

ZCS-QRC 

family 343, 345f

full-wave buck-type DC-DC converter 343, 344f

half-wave buck-type DC-DC converter 342, 343f

parameters 342–343

vs. ZVS 347–348

ZVS-QRC 

full-wave quasi-resonant buck converter 346, 347f

half-wave quasi-resonant buck converter 344–346, 346f

vs. ZCS 347–348

Quasi-resonant soft-switched inverter 

circuit operation 

DC voltage source vs. front-stage interface circuit 376

equivalent circuits 376, 377f

waveforms 376, 376f

design considerations 377–378, 378f

digital time control 

gating signals, timing diagrams 379, 379f

implementation 379, 379f

switch voltage waveforms 379, 379f

ZACE control concept 378, 378f

Random pulse width modulation 

insertion loss vs. frequency graph 1389f, 1390

nonrandom technique 1391–1392, 1391f

switching period 1390–1391

VD-RPWM 1392–1393, 1392f

Random weight change (RWC) algorithm 1255

Rankine cycle 732, 733f

RBSOA  See Reverse-bias safe operating area (RBSOA)

Real MOSFET 

Sw1 and Sw2 OFF and Rpot at maximum resistance 43–45, 44–45f

Sw1 and Sw2 ON and Rpot at maximum resistance 43, 44f

switching characteristics 39, 39f

Sw1 ON and Sw2 OFF and Rpot at maximum resistance 

drain-source voltage and gate-source voltage 40, 41f

turn-off process 40, 41f

turn-on process 40, 40f

Vg source and collector-emitter voltage 40, 40f

Sw1 ON and Sw2 OFF and Rpot at minimum resistance 

drain-source voltage and the gate-source voltage 42, 43f

turn-off process 42, 42f

turn-on process 42, 42f

Real-time interface (RTI) 1375

Reduced surface field (RESURF) concept 135–136, 135–136f

Regulation standards 

application-specific 1397

components 1398

IEEE Std 1662-2016 1398–1399

IEEE Std 1676-2010 1399

IEEE Std 1826-2012 1399

organization 1397–1398

Renewable energy sources (RES) 783

Resonant converters 

classification 341

control integrated circuits 

phase-shifted ZVT FB Circuit 361, 365f

QRCs and MRCs 359–360, 364f

vs. conventional PWM converters 340

load resonant converters 

parallel resonant converters 357–359, 361–363f

series-parallel resonant converter 359, 363f

series resonant converters 355–357, 359–361f

multi-resonant converters 

buck ZVS-MRC 349, 352, 352–353f

constant frequency buck MRC 352–355, 354f

constant-frequency multiresonant switch 352–355, 354f

family 352, 354f

ZC-MR switch 349, 352f

ZV-MR switch 349, 352f

non-dissipative active clamp network 355, 358f

quasi-resonant converters 

EP-QR converters 361–368

ZCS-QRCs 342–343, 347–348

ZVS-QRC 344–348

ZVT converters 

buck ZVT-PWM converter 355, 356f

conventional ZVT-PWM converters 355, 357f

Resonant DC link inverters 371

active-clamp resonant-link inverter 373–374, 373f

circuit complexity and frequency spectrum 371–372

constant DC link voltage 372

with low voltage stress 

advantages 374

circuit diagram 374, 374f

normal mode 374

operating modes 374–376, 375f

timing program 374–376, 374f

pulsating DC link inverter 372

for AC-DC-AC system 372, 372f

advantages 373

disadvantages 373

equivalent circuit 372, 373f

phase and line voltages 372, 373f

with resonant switch 372, 372f

with resonant tank 372, 372f

quasi-resonant soft-switched inverter 

circuit operation 376–377, 376–377f

design considerations 377–378, 378f

digital time control 378–379, 378–379f

switched-mode front-stage circuit 372

Resonant electronic ballasts 

current-fed resonant ballasts 693–694, 693f

voltage-fed resonant ballasts 694–695, 694f

Resonant inductive WPT system 712f

impedance reflection 714

mesh theory 714

operating field region 714, 714f

optimization objectives 715

system components 713–714, 713f

two-coil inductive WPT system  See (Two-coil inductive WPT system)

Resonant inverters 

current-fed parallel resonant inverters 

equivalent circuit 698, 698f

input current 698

operating waveforms 698, 698f

output voltage 698–699, 699f

parallel resonant circuit 700, 700f

phase angle 699

resonant tank natural frequency 700

self-oscillating current-fed push-pull electronic ballast 700, 700f

total harmonic distortion 699, 699f

voltage stress 699

design methodology 704–705, 704–705f

voltage-fed resonant inverters 

equivalent circuits 700, 701f

input voltage 700

operating waveforms 700, 701f

parallel-loaded resonant circuit 702–703, 702f

series-loaded resonant circuit 701–702, 701f

series-parallel-loaded resonant circuit 703–704, 703f

Resonant pole inverters (RPIs) 371

ARCPI 379–380, 381f

one leg of 379–380, 380f

single-phase RPI 

circuit diagram 379–380, 380f

operating modes 379–380, 381f

timing diagram 379–380, 380f

Resonant switch  See Resonant converters

Restricted frequency changer 436–437

Restricted switch 9–10

RESURF concept  See Reduced surface field (RESURF) concept

Reverse-bias safe operating area (RBSOA) 27, 27f

Ribbon bonding 161, 162f

Ripple factor (RF) 180–181

Road powered electric vehicles (RPEVs) 

dynamic inductive charging 

configuration 1121–1122, 1122–1123f

design goals 1122–1124, 1125f

OLEV  See (On-line electric vehicles (OLEVs))

temporary energy storage 1114, 1114f

Root-mean-square (rms) 233–234

Rotary UPS systems 645–647, 646f

Rotor resistance chopper control 819

RPEVs  See Road powered electric vehicles (RPEVs)

RPIs  See Resonant pole inverters (RPIs)

SAE  See Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

Safe operation area (SOA) 

power bipolar transistor 27, 27f

power MOSFET 36, 36f

reverse-biased second breakdown 21–24

Salter cam method 750, 752f

Schottky barrier diodes 609

Schottky diodes 18, 164–165, 165f

Selective harmonic elimination (SHE) 289

three-phase CSIs 

chopping angles 314, 315f

gating pattern generator 314, 315f

ideal waveforms 314, 316f

three-phase VSIs 304–305, 307f

bipolar SHE technique 299, 299–300f

unipolar SHE technique 299–301, 300–301f

Self-oscillating current-fed push-pull electronic ballast 700, 700f

Semiconductor diode 

application 

freewheeling 21, 22–23f

rectifiers 20–21, 20f, 22f

voltage multiplier 21, 24f

classification 

power rectifier diode 18

Schottky diodes 18

small signal diode 18

zener diode 18

dynamic characteristics 

current during turn-off process 18, 19f

dynamic behavior, voltage and current 17, 17f

real reverse recovery behavior 18, 18f

reverse recovery time 18

small signal diode current and voltage 18, 20f

switching characteristics 17, 17f

time intervals 17–18

forward-biased diode 15

junction diode structure 15, 16f

potential barrier 15

PSPICE model 21, 24t

reversed-biased diode 15

series and parallel connection, power diodes 18–20, 20f

static characteristics 

breakdown voltage 17

conduction resistance 17

equivalent circuit 17, 17f

forward voltage 17

of ideal diode 16, 16f

realistic diode structure 16, 16f

reverse current 17

symbol 15–16, 16f

threshold voltage 15

Semiconductor opening switches (SOS) diode 596–597

Semiconductor series stacks 

diode reverse voltages 606, 606f

equivalent model 606, 606f

R_SC_S parallel snubber 607

steady-state balancing 606, 606–607f

Semiconverter  See Half controlled bridge converter

Series charge regulators 787, 787f

Series-parallel resonant converter 359, 363f

Series resonant converters (SRCs) 

continuous conduction mode 

with ω_r < ω_S 356–357, 360f

0.5ω_r < ω_S < ω_r 355, 360f

discontinuous conduction mode with ω_S < 0.5ω_r 355, 360f

half-bridge configuration 355–357, 359f

M vs. γ 357, 361f

Series-tuned LC harmonic filter 533–534, 534f

Servo drives 

control-loop design issues 

integral controller 994, 994f

proportional controller 993, 993f

representations and control 994–996, 994–996f

transient velocity feedback controller 993–994, 994f

examples 991

inner current loops 992–993

inner torque-control loops 993

performance of 991

sensors 993

servo motors 991–992, 991–992f

Seven-phase voltage source inverter 

square wave mode 

14-step operation 491–498, 495–497f, 496t, 498t

modeling using space-vector approach 491–492

model transformation, decoupling matrix 500–504, 504f

PWM mode of operation 498–500, 499t, 501–503t

SVPWM method 

in linear modulation range 504

low-order harmonics elimination 504

simulation results 505

with sinusoidal output 505–507, 505t, 505–508f

SHE  See Selective harmonic elimination (SHE)

Shunt charge regulators 787–788, 787f

Silicon avalanche sharpener (SAS) 599

Silicon carbide (SiC) 

BJT 

base-emitter voltage 115

blocking voltage 114

boundary carrier densities 116–117

charge distribution, N^– collector 115, 115f

charge distribution, P-base region 114, 115f

current gain 114

depletion widths 116

displacement currents 116

electron concentration 115

electron current component 114

hole current 114

one-dimensional structure 114, 114f

voltage drop 114–116

figures of merit 

for devices 101, 102t

for materials and technology 100–101, 100t

flow diagram 96, 96f

IGBT 

avalanche breakdown 118

carrier distribution 122

charge distribution 120, 120f

continuity equation 119, 121

current spreading layer 119

depletion width 118–119, 121

hole current 120

Miller capacitance 121

N-channel IGBTs 117–118

one-dimensional cross section 119, 119f

ON-resistance 117

P-channel IGBTs 117–118

punch-through effect 118–119

P-well displacement current 121

reverse injection current 120

turn-OFF transient 117

voltage drop 118, 122

JFET 

advantages 111

cascode configuration 112, 112f

depletion width 113

FOM 114, 114t

gate-to-drain capacitance 113

LCJFET 111, 112f

parameters 114, 114t

VCJFETs 112–113, 112f

junction barrier Schottky diode 108–109, 108f

lightly doped drift region thickness 143–145, 145f

MOSFETs 109–111, 109t, 110f

PiN diode 

advantage 104

carrier charge density 105

carrier distribution 106–107, 107f

carrier dynamics 105

conductivity modulation 104

current transport equations 106

depletion layer voltages 106

depletion widths 106

displacement currents 106

electric field 106

electron current 104

intrinsic carrier concentration 107–108

junction voltage 105, 107

level-3 model 104

recombination parameter 107

structure 104, 104f

voltage drop 104, 106–107

polytypes 97

power semiconductor devices 166

Schottky diode 

advantage 102

barrier heights 103, 103t

drift region resistance 103

forward voltage 102

maximum electric field 104

ohmic contact resistance 103

reverse leakage current 103

structure 102, 102f

thermionic emission model 104

total specific resistance 103

tunneling coefficient 104

thyristor 

continuity equation 124

emitter recombination 123

GTOs 122–125

hole concentration 124

lumped-charge method 125

N⁺ 4H-SiC substrates 123

one-dimensional ambipolar diffusion equation 124–125

reverse injection current 124

schematic structure 123, 123f

SCRs 122

voltage drop 125

Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) 50, 603, 603f See also Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO); Static induction thyristor

Silicon (Si) power devices 

BJTs 96

coefficient of thermal expansion 100

critical electric field 98–99, 99f

flow diagram 96, 96f

GTOs 96

IGCTs 96

intrinsic carrier concentration 99

physical properties 97–98, 98t

saturated drift velocity 99

Schottky diodes 96

thermal stability 99–100

Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis (SPICE) 1442

Single-ended isolated flyback regulators 

circuit diagram 668–669, 670f

circuit elements 668–669

continuous-mode flyback regulators 671–672, 671f

discontinuous-mode flyback regulators 669–671

steady-state waveforms 668–669, 670f

Single-ended isolated forward regulators 

circuit diagram 673, 674f

continuous-mode operation 673

current components, primary winding 673, 675f

discontinuous mode 673

duty cycle 675

magnetizing current 673

maximum collector current 675

maximum collector voltage 675

output inductor current 675

output voltage 675

steady-state waveforms 673, 674f

total primary current 673

Single objective genetic optimization search algorithm (SOGA) 1262–1263, 1263f

Single-objective (SO) optimization 1279

Single objective particle swarm optimization search algorithm (SOPSO) 

algorithm 1264–1265, 1265f

basic search method 1264, 1264f

numerical and qualitative problems 1263–1264

structure of 1264

Single-phase AC-AC voltage controller 

basic power circuit 418, 418f

bidirectional full-wave symmetrical control 418, 418f

with on/off control 421–422, 422f