Interpersonal communication is the process of transmitting information to others.¹⁶ To be complete, the process must have the following three basic elements:¹⁷

1. The source/encoder—The source/encoder is the person in the interpersonal communication situation who originates and encodes information to be shared with others. Encoding is putting information into a form that can be received and understood by another individual. Putting one’s thoughts into a letter is an example of encoding. Until information is encoded, it cannot be shared with others. (From here on, the source/encoder will be referred to simply as the source.)

2. The signal—Encoded information that the source intends to share constitutes a message. A message that has been transmitted from one person to another is called a signal.

3. The decoder/destination—The decoder/destination is the person or persons with whom the source is attempting to share information. This person receives the signal and decodes, or interprets, the message to determine its meaning. Decoding is the process of converting messages back into information. In all interpersonal communication situations, message meaning is the result of decoding. (From here on, the decoder/destination will be referred to simply as the destination.)

The classic work of Wilbur Schramm clarifies the role played by each of the three elements of the interpersonal communication process. As implied in Figure 12.4, the source determines what information to share, encodes that information in the form of a message, and then transmits the message as a signal to the destination. The destination decodes the transmitted message to determine its meaning and then responds accordingly.

A manager who desires to assign the performance of a certain task to a subordinate would use the communication process in the following way: First, the manager would determine exactly what task he or she wants the subordinate to perform. Then the manager would encode and transmit to the subordinate a message that would accurately reflect this assignment. The message transmission itself could be as simple as the manager telling the subordinate what the new responsibilities include. Next, the subordinate would decode the message transmitted by the manager to ascertain its meaning and then respond to it appropriately.

 Successful communication refers to an interpersonal communication situation in which the information the source intends to share with the destination and the meaning the destination derives from the transmitted message are the same. Conversely, unsuccessful communication is an interpersonal communication situation in which the information the source intends to share with the destination and the meaning the destination derives from the transmitted message are different.

To increase the probability that communication will be successful, the message must be encoded so that the source’s experience of the way a signal should be decoded is equivalent to the destination’s experience of the way it should be decoded. If these experiences match up, the probability is high that the destination will interpret the signal as intended by the source. Figure 12.5 illustrates these overlapping fields of experience that ensure successful communication.

Factors that decrease the probability that communication will be successful are called communication barriers. A clear understanding of these barriers will help managers maximize their communication success. The following sections discuss both communication macrobarriers and communication microbarriers.

Feedback is the destination’s reaction to a message. Feedback can be used by the source to ensure successful communication. For example, if the destination’s message reaction is inappropriate, the source can conclude that communication was unsuccessful and that another message should be transmitted. If the destination’s message reaction is appropriate, the source can conclude that communication was successful (assuming, of course, that the appropriate reaction did not happen merely by chance). Because of its potentially high value, managers should encourage feedback whenever possible and evaluate it carefully.²⁸

Feedback can be either verbal or nonverbal.²⁹ To gather verbal feedback, the source can simply ask the destination pertinent message-related questions; the destination’s answers should indicate whether the message was perceived as intended. To gather nonverbal feedback, the source can observe the destination’s nonverbal response to a message.³⁰ Say a manager has transmitted a message to a subordinate, specifying new steps that must be taken in the normal performance of the subordinate’s job. The subordinate’s failure to follow the steps accurately constitutes nonverbal feedback telling the manager that the initial message needs to be clarified.

If managers discover that their communication effectiveness is relatively low over an extended period of time, they should assess the situation to determine how to improve their communication skills. It may be that their vocabulary is confusing to their destinations. For example, a study conducted by Group Attitudes Corporation found that when managers used certain words repeatedly in communicating with steelworkers, the steelworkers usually became confused.³¹ Among the words causing confusion were accrue, contemplate, designate, detriment, magnitude, and subsequently.

In general, managers can sharpen their communication skills by adhering to the following “10 commandments of good communication” as closely as possible:³²

1. Seek to clarify your ideas before communicating—The more systematically you analyze the problem or idea to be communicated, the clearer it becomes. This is the first step toward effective communication. Many communications fail because of inadequate planning. Good planning must consider the goals and attitudes of those who will receive the communication and those who will be affected by it.

2. Examine the true purpose of each communication—Before you communicate, ask yourself what you really want to accomplish with your message—obtain information, initiate action, change another person’s attitude? Identify your most important goal and then adapt your language, tone, and total approach to serve that specific objective. Don’t try to accomplish too much with each communication. The sharper the focus of your message, the greater its chances of success.

3. Consider the total physical and human setting whenever you communicate—Meaning and intent are conveyed by more than words alone. Many other factors influence the overall impact of a communication, and managers must be sensitive to the total setting in which they communicate. Consider, for example, your sense of timing, or the circumstances under which you make an announcement or render a decision; the physical setting; whether you communicate in private or otherwise, for example, the social climate that pervades work relationships within your company or department and sets the tone of its communications; and custom and practice, or the degree to which your communication conforms to, or departs from, the expectations of your audience. Be constantly aware of the total setting in which you communicate. Like all living things, communication must be capable of adapting to its environment.

4. Consult with others, when appropriate, in planning communications—Frequently, it is desirable or necessary to seek the participation of others in planning a communication or in developing the facts on which to base the communication. Such consultation often lends additional insight and objectivity to your message. Moreover, those who have helped you plan your communication will give it their active support.

5. Be mindful of the overtones while you communicate rather than merely the basic content of your message—Your tone of voice, your expression, and your apparent receptiveness to the responses of others have a significant effect on those you wish to reach. Frequently overlooked, these subtleties of communication often affect a listener’s reaction to a message even more than its basic content. Similarly, your choice of language—particularly your awareness of the fine shades of meaning and emotion in the words you use—predetermines, in large part, the reactions of your listeners.

6. Take the opportunity, when it arises, to convey something of help or value to the receiver—Consideration of the other person’s interests and needs—trying to look at things from the other person’s point of view—frequently points out opportunities to convey something of immediate benefit or long-range value to the other person. Subordinates are most responsive to managers whose messages take the subordinates’ interests into account.

7. Follow up your communication—Your best efforts at communication may be wasted, and you may never know whether you have succeeded in expressing your true meaning and intent, if you do not follow up and evaluate how well your message was received. You can do this by asking questions, by encouraging the receiver to express his or her reactions, by following up on contacts, and by subsequently reviewing performance. Make certain that you get feedback for every important communication so that complete understanding and appropriate action result.

8. Communicate for tomorrow as well as today—Even though communications may be aimed primarily at meeting the demands of an immediate situation, they must be planned with the past in mind if they are to be viewed as consistent by the receiver. Most importantly, however, communications must be consistent with long-range interests and goals. For example, it is not easy to communicate frankly on such matters as poor performance or the shortcomings of a loyal subordinate, but postponing disagreeable communications makes these matters more difficult in the long run and is actually unfair to your subordinates and your company.

9. Be sure your actions support your communications—In the final analysis, the most persuasive kind of communication is not what you say, but what you do. When your actions or attitudes contradict your words, others tend to discount what you have said. For every manager, good supervisory practices—such as clear assignment of responsibility and authority, fair rewards for effort, and sound policy enforcement—communicate more than all the gifts of oratory.

10. Last, but by no means least, seek not only to be understood, but also to understand—be a good listener—When you start talking, you often cease to listen, or at least to be attuned to the other person’s unspoken reactions and attitudes. Even more serious is the occasional inattentiveness you may be guilty of when others are attempting to communicate with you. Listening is one of the most important, most difficult, and most neglected skills in communication. It demands that you concentrat0e not only on the explicit meanings another person is expressing but also on the implicit meanings, unspoken words, and undertones that may be far more significant.

Interpersonal communication is generally divided into two types: verbal and nonverbal. Up to this point, this chapter has emphasized verbal communication—communication that uses either spoken or written words to share information with others.

Nonverbal communication is sharing information without using words to encode thoughts. Factors commonly used to encode thoughts in nonverbal communication are gestures, vocal tones, and facial expressions.³³ However, in most interpersonal communication, verbal and nonverbal communications are not mutually exclusive. Instead, the destination’s interpretation of a message is generally based both on the words contained in the message and on such nonverbal factors as the source’s gestures and facial expressions.

In an interpersonal communication situation in which both verbal and nonverbal factors are present, nonverbal factors may have more influence on the total effect of the message.³⁵ Over two decades ago, Albert Mehrabian developed the following formula to indicate the relative contributions of verbal and nonverbal factors to the total effect of a message: total message impact = 0.07 words + 0.38 vocal tones + 0.55 facial expressions. Other nonverbal factors besides vocal tones that can influence the effect of a verbal message are facial expressions, gestures, gender, and dress. Managers who are aware of this great potential influence of nonverbal factors on the effect of their communications will use nonverbal message components to complement their verbal message components whenever possible.³⁶

Nonverbal messages can also be used to add meaning to verbal messages. For instance, a head might be nodded or a voice toned to show either agreement or disagreement.

Managers must be especially careful when they are communicating that verbal and nonverbal factors do not present contradictory messages. For example, if the words of a message express approval while the nonverbal factors express disapproval, the result will be message ambiguity that leaves the destination frustrated.

Managers who are able to communicate successfully through a blend of verbal and nonverbal communication are critical to the success of virtually every organization. In fact, the Darden Graduate School of Business at the University of Virginia commissioned a recent survey of corporate recruiters across the United States, and the survey revealed that the skill organizations most seek in prospective employees is facility at verbal and nonverbal communication.