1. Adrian Gostick and Chester Elton, All In: How the Best Managers Create a Culture of Belief and Drive Big Results (New York: Free Press, 2012), quoted in Ann Rhoades, “Engagement Isn’t Enough,” Strategy + Business, April 27, 2012, http://www.strategy-business.com; “100 Best Companies to Work For 2012: American Express,” Fortune (February 6, 2012); Paul Hagen, “Nine Ways to Reward Employees to Reinforce Customer-Centric Behaviors,” 1to1 Media, May 8, 2012, http://www.1to1media.com; Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology, “2012: American Express,” Top Company Award, http://anitaborg.org, accessed May 14, 2012; “The DiversityInc Top 50 Companies for Diversity: American Express,” http://diversityinc.com, accessed May 14, 2012; Tara Siegel Bernard, “Amex Equalizes Health Costs for Gay Employees,” New York Times, October 19, 2011, http://bucks.blogs.nytimes.com.

2. Kaylene C. Williams and Caroline C. Williams, “Five Key Ingredients for Improving Student Motivation,” Research in Higher Education Journal 12 (August 2011): 1–23; Carole L. Jurkiewicz, Tom K. Massey, Jr., and Roger G. Brown, “Motivation in Public and Private Organizations: A Comparative Study,” Public Productivity & Management Review 21, no. 3 (March 1998): 230–250.

3. For a useful discussion of motivation, see: Thomas Wright, “What Every Manager Should Know: Does Personality Help Drive Employee Motivation?” The Academy of Management Executive 17 (2003): 131.

4. Mike DeLuca, “Motivating Your Staff Is Key to Your Success,” Restaurant Hospitality (February 1995): 20; see also: Sanford De Voe and Sheena Ivengar, “Managers’ Theories of Subordinates: A Cross-Cultural Examination of Manager Perceptions of Motivation and Appraisal of Performance,” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 93 (2004): 47.

5. For an overview of the field known as work motivation, see: James M. Diefendorff and Megan M. Chandler, “Maintaining, Expanding, and Contracting the Organization,” in Sheldon Zedeck, ed., APA Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 3. (Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association, 2011), 65–135.

6. Morisano, D., Hirsch, J. B., Phil, R. O., and Shore, B. M. “Setting, Elaborating, and Reflecting on Personal Goals Improves Academic Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 95, no. 2 (2010): 255-264.

7. Craig Miller, “How to Construct Programs for Teams,” Reward & Recognition (August/September 1991): 4–6; Walter F. Charsley, “Management, Morale, and Motivation,” Management World 17 (July/August 1988): 27–28.

8. Victor H. Vroom, Work and Motivation (New York: Wiley, 1964); for the application of Vroom’s work to the construction industry, see: Hassan Ali Halepota, “Motivational Theories and Their Application in Construction: A Publication of the American Association of Cost Engineers,” Cost Engineering 47, no. 3 (March 2005): 14–18.

9. J. Stacy Adams, “Towards an Understanding of Inequity,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67 (1963): 422–436. For the possible effects of equity theory in China, see: Yujun Lian, Zhi Su, and Yuedong Gu, “Evaluating the Effects of Equity Incentives Using PSM: Evidence from China,” Frontiers of Business Research in China 5, no. 2 (June 2011): 266–290. For a rationale linking expectancy and equity theories, see: Joseph W. Harder, “Equity Theory Versus Expectancy Theory: The Case of Major League Baseball Free Agents,” Journal of Applied Psychology (June 1991): 458–464.

10. Eric O’Keefe, “Executive Pay Proposals Rejected at AMR,” New York Times, May 17, 2007, C5.

11. L. W. Porter and E. E. Lawler, Managerial Attitudes and Performance (Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1968). For more information on intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, see: Pat Buhler, “Rewards in the Organization,” Supervision 50 (January 1989): 5–7.

12. Eunmi Chang, “Composite Effects of Extrinsic Motivation on Work Effort: A Case of Korean Employees,” Journal of World Business 38 (2003): 70.

13. For a study that assesses the effectiveness of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, see: R. C. Mahaney and A. Lederer, “The Effect of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards for Developers on Information Systems Project Success,” Project Management Journal 37 (2006): 42–54.

14. Eric G. Flamholtz and Yvonne Randle, “The Inner Game of Management,” Management Review 77 (April 1988): 24–30.

15. Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1970). For an up-to-date discussion of the value of Maslow’s ideas, see: Edward Hoffman, “Abraham Maslow: Father of Enlightened Management,” Training 25 (September 1988): 79–82.

16. “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Revisited,” Nursing Forum 38 (2003): 3.

17. For a discussion of an empowerment tool that managers can use to help employees satisfy their esteem and self-actualization needs, see: Chris Argyris, “Empowerment: The Emperor’s New Clothes,” Harvard Business Review 76, no. 3 (May/June 1998): 98–105.

18. For critiques of Maslow, see: Jack W. Duncan, Essentials of Management (Hinsdale, IL: Dryden Press, 1975), 105; Edward Hoffman, “Abraham Maslow: Father of Enlightened Management,” Training 25 (September 1988): 79–82; Dale L. Mort, “Lead Your Team to the Top,” Security Management 32 (January 1988): 43–45.

19. For information about Maslow’s revised hierarchy of needs, see: M. Koltko-Rivera, “Rediscovering the Later Version of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Self-Transcendence and Opportunities for Theory, Research, and Unification,” Review of General Psychology 10 (2006): 302–317.

20. Clayton Alderfer, Existence, Relatedness, and Growth (New York: Free Press, 1972). For a reconstruction of Maslow’s hierarchy, see: Francis Heylighen, “A Cognitive-Systemic Reconstruction of Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization,” Behavioral Science (January 1992): 39–58.

21. Jill Jusko, “The ROI of Employee Recognition,” Industry Week (February 2013): 40–41; “Seco Tools Recognized for HR Practices,” Cutting Tool Engineering Plus, January 3, 2013, http://www.ctemag.com; Seco Tools, “Reach Your Potential: Career Opportunities with Seco Tools,” http://secotools.iapplicants.com, accessed April 7, 2014.

22. Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization (New York: Harper & Bros., 1957). See also: Charles R. Davis, “The Primacy of Self-Development in Chris Argyris’s Writings,” International Journal of Public Administration 10 (September 1987): 177–207.

23. Karen E. Klein, “Where an Inventor-Entrepreneur Finds Motivation,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, August 4, 2009, http://www.businessweek.com.

24. David C. McClelland and David G. Winter, Motivating Economic Achievement (New York: Free Press, 1969). See also: Lawrence Holp, “Achievement Motivation and Kaizen,” Training and Development Journal 43 (October 1989): 53–63; D. C. McClelland and David H. Burnham, “Power Is the Great Motivator,” Harvard Business Review (January/February 1995): 126–139.

25. Michael Sanson, “Fired Up!” Restaurant Hospitality (February 1995): 53–64.

26. Brooke Donald, “To Motivate Many Americans, Think ‘Me’ before ‘We,’ Say Stanford Psychologists,” Stanford Report, January 28, 2013, news.stanford.edu; Association for Psychological Science, “In the Land of the Free, Interdependence Undermines Americans’ Motivation to Act,” news release, January 22, 2013, www.psychologicalscience.org; Lee Dye, “Why Americans Don’t Join Together: A Scientific Analysis,” ABC News, January 31, 2013, abcnews.go.com; MarYam G. Hamedani, Hazel Rose Markus, and Alyssa S. Fu, “In the Land of the Free, Interdependent Action Undermines Motivation,” Psychological Science 24, no. 2 (February 2013), abstract accessed at pss.sagepub.com.

27. For an empirical investigation of the importance of a manager’s ability to effectively communicate, see: D. English, E. Manton, and J. Walker, “Human Resource Managers’ Perception of Selected Communication Competencies,” Education 127 (2007): 410–418.

28. Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960). For discussion of how Theory X–Theory Y assumptions held by managers can influence their views on how others should participate in making decisions, see: Travis L. Russ, “Theory X/Y Assumptions as Predictors of Managers’ Propensity for Participative Decision Making,” Management Decision 49, no. 5 (2011): 823–836; see also: Travis L. Russ, “The Relationship Between Theory X/Y: Assumptions and Communication Apprehension,” Leadership & Organization Development Journal 34, no. 3 (2013): 238–249.

29. Elizabeth A. Fisher, “Motivation and Leadership in Social Work Management: A Review of Theories and Related Studies,” Administration in Social Work 33, no. 4 (October–December 2009): 347–367.

30. For further information about McGregor’s Theory Y, see: C. Carson, “A Historical View of Douglas McGregor’s Theory Y,” Management Decision 43 (2005): 450–462.

31. For further information about applying Theory Z in the workplace, see: Richard Daft, “Theory Z: Opening the Corporate Door for Participative Management,” Academy of Management Executive 18 (2004): 117.

32. For further information about the possible usefulness of Theory X, see: Michael Bobic and William Davis, “A Kind Word for Theory X: Or Why So Many Newfangled Management Techniques Quickly Fail,” Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 13 (2003): 239.

33. For more information on reducing boredom in the workplace, see: Z. Bhadury and Z. Radovilsky, “Job Rotation Using the Multi-Period Assignment Model,” International Journal of Production Research 44 (2006): 4431.

34. For more discussion on the implications of job rotation in organizations, see: Alan W. Farrant, “Job Rotation Is Important,” Supervision (August 1987): 14–16; see also: Wipawee Tharmmaphornphilas and Bryan A. Norman, “A Quantitative Method for Determining Proper Job Rotation Intervals,” Annals of Operations Research 128 (2004): 251.

35. Julia Weichel, Sanjin Stanic, José Alonso Enriquez Diaz, and Ekkehart Frieling, “Job Rotation—Implications for Old and Impaired Assembly Line Workers,” Occupational Ergonomics 9, no. 2 (June 2010): 67–74.

36. L. E. Davis and E. S. Valfer, “Intervening Responses to Changes in Supervisor Job Designs,” Occupational Psychology (July 1965): 171–190.

37. This section is based on Frederick Herzberg, “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?” Harvard Business Review (January/February 1968): 53–62. See also: Deborah B. Smith and Joel Shields, “Factors Related to Social Service Workers’ Job Satisfaction: Revisiting Herzberg’s Motivation to Work,” Administration in Social Work 37, no. 2 (2013): 189.

38. Katina W. Thompson, “Underemployment Perceptions, Job Attitudes, and Outcomes: An Equity Theory Perspective,” Academy of Management Proceedings (2009): 1–6.

39. For an understanding of how job enrichment relates to other workplace factors, see: L. Lapierre, R. Hackett, and S. Taggar, “A Test of the Links Between Family Interference with Work, Job Enrichment, and Leader-Member Exchange,” Applied Psychology 55 (2006): 489.

40. Scott M. Meyers, “Who Are Your Motivated Workers?” Harvard Business Review (January/February 1964): 73–88; J. Barton Cunningham and Ted Eberle, “A Guide to Job Enrichment and Redesign,” Personnel 67 (February 1990): 56–61.

41. Ray B. Williams, “How to Motivate Employees: What Managers Need to Know,” Psychology Today, February 13, 2010, http://www.psychologytoday.com.

42. For an analysis of the strengths of implementing flextime in the workplace, see: J. Haar, “Exploring the Benefits and Use of Flextime: Similarities and Differences,” Qualitative Research in Accounting and Management 4 (2007): 69; see also: Kalpana Solanki, “Association of Job Satisfaction, Productivity, Motivation, Stress Levels with Flextime,” Journal of Organisation and Human Behaviour 2, no. 2 (2013): 1–10.

43. Bob Smith and Karen Matthes, “Flexibility Now for the Future,” HR Focus (January 1992): 5.

44. D. A. Bratton, “Moving Away from Nine to Five,” Canadian Business Review 13 (Spring 1986): 15–17.

45. Douglas L. Fleuter, “Flextime—A Social Phenomenon,” Personnel Journal (June 1975): 318–319; Jill Kanin-Lovers, “Meeting the Challenge of Workforce, 2000,” Journal of Compensation and Benefits 5 (January/February 1990): 233–236.

46. B. F. Skinner, Contingencies of Reinforcement (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969).

47. For an interesting discussion of accounting as a means of rewarding employees, see: Mahmoud Ezzamel and Hugh Willmott, “Accounting, Remuneration, and Employee Motivation in the New Organization,” Accounting and Business Research 28, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 97–110.

48. For further information about the use of positive reinforcement in the workplace, see: D. Wiegand and S. Geller, “Connecting Positive Psychology and Organizational Behavior Management: Achievement Motivation and the Power of Positive Reinforcement,” Journal of Organizational Behavior Management 24 (2004/2005): 3.

49. P. M. Padokaff, “Relationships Between Leader Reward and Punishment Behavior and Group Process and Productivity,” Journal of Management 11 (Spring 1985): 55–73.

50. For an understanding of the potential repercussions of excessive punishment, see: Steven Schepman and Lynn Richmond, “Employee Expectations and Motivation: An Application from the Learned Helplessness Paradigm,” Journal of American Academy of Business 3 (2003): 405.

51. “New Tool: Reinforcement for Good Work,” Psychology Today (April 1972): 68–69.

52. W. Clay Hamner and Ellen P. Hamner, “Behavior Modification on the Bottom Line,” Organizational Dynamics 4 (Spring 1976): 6–8.

53. James K. Hickel, “Paying Employees to Control Costs,” Human Resources Professional (January/February 1995): 21–24.

54. For more information about cognitive-behavior modification, see: D. Boan, “Cognitive-Behavior Modification and Organizational Culture,” Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research 58 (2006): 51–61.

55. Kathleen Koster, “Mind over Matter,” Employee Benefit News (March 2013): 26–27; Ronald Riggio, “Five Ways to Infect Others with Motivation,” Psychology Today, March 23, 2014, http://www.psychologytoday.com; Amy Bucher, “Think Process as Well as Product: Using the Psychology of Motivation to Get Things Done,” Wired, March 7, 2014, http://www.wired.com.

56. Rensis Likert, New Patterns of Management (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961). For an interesting discussion of the worth of Likert’s ideas, see: Marvin R. Weisbord, “For More Productive Workplaces,” Journal of Management Consulting 4 (1988): 7–14. The following descriptions are based on the table of organizational and performance characteristics of different management systems, in Rensis Likert, The Human Organization (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), 4–10.

57. For an empirical investigation of the effectiveness of monetary incentives, see: H. McGee, A. Dickinson, B. Huitema, and K. Culig, “The Effects of Individual and Group Monetary Incentives on High Performance,” Performance Improvement Quarterly 19 (2006): 107–130.

58. For a discussion of a novel monetary incentive program, see: Charles A. Cerami, “Special Incentives May Appeal to Valued Employees,” HR Focus (November 1991): 17. See also: Reginald Shareef, “A Midterm Case Study Assessment of Skill-Based Pay in the Virginia Department of Transportation,” Review of Public Personnel Administration 18, no. 1 (Winter 1998): 5–22.

59. “Create a Successful Incentive Program,” Journal of Financial Planning (May/June 2010): 12–13.

60. Jena McGregor, “Will Ending Annual Reviews Make You More Like a Startup?” BusinessWeek, August 28, 2009, http://www.businessweek.com.

61. Marilyn Moats Kennedy, “What Makes People Work Hard?” Across the Board 35, no. 5 (May 1998): 51–52.

62. Gordon Johnson, “Marketing Learning the United Way,” Chief Learning Officer 9, no. 5 (2010): 42–47; www.unitedway.org.

63. Dan Kadlec, “The Nonprofit Squeeze,” Time 173, no. 12 (2009): 49–50.

64. See endnote 62.

65. See endnote 62.

66. Crouse, “Punishment Laps Help Jets Kick Penalty Habit,”